I 

I 


| 


TURKEY   RAISING 


BY 

HARRY  M.  LAMON 

SENIOR    POULTRYMAN,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  UNITED 
STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AND 

ROB  R.  SLOCUM 

POULTRYMAN,  BUREAU  OF  ANIMAL  INDUSTRY,  UNITED  STATES 
DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Authors  of 
'The  Mating  and  Breeding  of  Poultry" 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
ORANGE  JUDD   PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

LONDON 
KEGAN  PAUL,  TRENCH,  TRUBNER  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

1922 


COPYRIGHT,  1922,  BY 

ORANGE  JUDD  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

All  Rights  Reserved 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


DEDICATED  TO 

THE  AMERICAN  TURKEY 
KING  OF  DOMESTIC  FOWLS 


PREFACE 

For  the  past  twenty  years  there  has  been  a  general  and 
more  or  less  steady  decrease  in  turkey  production.  And 
this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  other  branch  of  livestock 
returns  as  great  a  profit  for  the  money  invested  and  the 
equipment  required.  Recently,  however,  there  has  been 
a  considerable  awakening  of  interest  in  turkey  raising 
and  a  growing  demand  for  detailed  information  regard- 
ing this  industry. 

It  has  been  the  purpose  of  the  authors  to  provide  in 
this  publication  the  latest  and  most  thoroughly  reliable 
information  on  the  subject  for  the  use  both  of  the  raiser 
of  market  turkeys  and  of  the  producer  of  breeding  or 
exhibition  stock.  In  presenting  this  information  it  has 
been  the  authors'  aim  to  deal  with  the  subject  thoroughly 
and  in  great  detail  and  at  the  same  time  to  keep  the  work 
so  concise,  simple  and  clear  that  it  is  of  the  greatest 
practical  value  either  to  the  beginner  or  to  one  more 
experienced  in  turkey  raising. 

Recognizing  the  high  value  of  good  illustrations  in 
emphasizing  the  information  given  in  the  text,  all  phases 
of  this  book  have  been  thoroughly  illustrated.  It  is 
the  confident  belief  of  the  authors  that  considered  either 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  completeness  with  which  all 
phases  of  the  subject  are  covered  or  of  the  excellence 
of  the  illustrations  themselves,  no  equal  set  of  photo- 
graphs on  the  subjects  treated  has  ever  before  been 
gathered  together. 


vi  PREFACE 

The  authors  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  their  in- 
debtedness to  the  following  persons  for  the  valuable  aid 
which  they  have  given  in  the  preparation  of  this  book — 

Prof.  J.  E.  Dougherty 

Mrs.  Elia  Fowler  * 

James  Glasgow 

John  C.  Kriner 

Charles  McClave 

Courtland  H.  Smith 

Further  and  more  particular  acknowledgment  is  due 
Andrew  S.  Weiant  who  was  formerly  the  turkey  and 
guinea  specialist  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  upon 
whose  work  and  studies,  both  in  the  form  of  his  pub- 
lished Farmers'  Bulletins  and  otherwise,  the  authors  have 
drawn  heavily.  Special  acknowledgment  is  likewise  due 
J.  W.  Kinghorne,  Junior  Poultryman,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  for 
the  thorough  and  painstaking  manner  in  which  he  has 
indexed  the  book. 

For  the  period  of  the  past  ten  years  the  authors  have 
been  privileged  to  work  together  in  the  closest  relationship 
for  the  interests  of  the  poultry  industry  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  to  them  a  matter  of  deep  pride  that  during 
this  time  their  first  thought  has  always  been  to  render 
a  service  to  the  poultrymen  and  women  of  their  country. 
And  it  is  with  this  same  idea  of  service  that  they  offer 
the  present  book  to  the  poultry  public. 

HARRY  M.  LAMON, 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  1922.  ROB  R.  SLOCUM. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 

HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY  AND  OPPORTUNITIES  .  I 
A  native  American — The  Wild  turkey — The  Hon- 
duras or  Ocellated  turkey — Origin  of  the  name,  tur- 
key— Extent  of  the  industry — Reasons  for  decreased 
production — Opportunities  for  turkey  raising — Tur- 
key raising  as  a  business  for  the  farm  woman — 
Turkeys  as  insect  destroyers — Raising  turkeys  in  con- 
finement— Prices — Prices  of  breeding  stock. 

CHAPTER  II 

VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 17 

Size — Popularity  of  varieties — General  considera- 
tions in  making  the  mating — Making  the  mating — The 
Wild  turkey — The  Bronze  turkey — The  Narragan- 
sett  turkey— The  White  Holland  turkey— The  Black 
turkey— The  Slate  turkey— The  Bourbon  Red  turkey 
— Preparing  turkeys  for  the  show — Catching  and 
handling  turkeys — Shipping  show  birds  and  breeding 
stock — Packing  and  shipping  hatching  eggs — Judging 
turkeys. 

CHAPTER  III 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 41 

Making  a  start — Selection  of  the  breeding  stock — 
Should  turkeys  be  inbred? — Age  of  breeding  stock — 
Preventing  injury  to  hens  in  breeding — Selecting  and 
purchasing  breeders — Number  of  hens  to  a  male — 
Breeding  yards — Feeding  the  breeding  stock — Winter 
shelter  for  the  breeders — The  breeding  and  laying 
season — Locating  stolen  nests — Care  of  eggs  for 
hatching. 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV 

FACE 

INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 67 

Period  of  incubation — Methods  of  hatching — Num- 
ber of  eggs  to  set — Nest  for  sitting  hen — Setting  the 
hen — Management  of  sitting  hen — Dusting  the  sitting 
hen  for  lice — Hatching  with  chicken  hens — Hatching 
with  an  incubator. 

CHAPTER  V 

BROODING  AND  REARING  THE  YOUNG  STOCK 78 

Protection  for  the  poults — Rearing  poults  by  arti- 
ficial means — Feeding  the  poults — Lice  on  poults — 
Marking  and  pedigreeing  turkeys — Feathering  of 
poults — Shooting  or  throwing  the  red — Distinguish- 
ing the  sexes — Management  of  growing  turkeys. 

CHAPTER  VI 
MARKETING 102 

Time  of  marketing — Size  of  young  turkeys — Princi- 
pal markets  and  market  demands — Fattening  turkeys 
— Caponizing — Selling  turkeys  alive— Killing  and 
dressing — Packing — Turkey  feathers — Dressing  on 
the  farm — Shipping  turkeys  alive — Market  prices. 

CHAPTER  VII 

INSECT  PESTS,  DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS  .  .  .  124 
Lice — Stick  tight  fleas  or  chiggers — Diseases — 
General  disease  preventive  measures — Blackhead — 
Chicken  pox  or  sore  head — Roup — Limberneck — 
Crop  bound  —  Worms  —  Gapes  —  Bumblef oot — Diar- 
rhoea or  bowel  trouble — Predatory  animals. 

INDEX 147 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  FACING  PAGE 

Frontispiece— Turkey  Tom  Strutting. 

1.  Wild  Turkeys 4 

2.  Flock  of  Turkeys  Gleaning  Shelled  and  Spilled  Grain  5 

3.  Turkeys  Clearing  Cotton  Fields  of  Insects  and  Weeds  10 

4.  Wild   Turkey,   Male n 

5.  Bronze  Turkey,  Male 24 

6.  Bronze  Turkey,  Female 25 

7.  Wing  of  Bronze  Turkey  Tom 26 

8.  Feathers  from  a  Bronze  Turkey  Hen 27 

9.  Narragansett  Turkey,  Male 28 

10.    Wing  of  Narragansett  Cockerel 29 

n.    White  Holland  Turkey,  Male 3° 

12.  Black  Turkey,  Male 31 

13.  Black  Turkey,  Female 32 

14.  Slate  Turkey,  Male 33 

15.  Bourbon  Red  Turkey,  Male 34 

16.  Defective  Feathers  from  a  Bourbon  Red  Turkey  .     .  35 

17.  Wing  of  Bourbon  Red  Cockerel 3^ 

1 8.  Proper  Method  of  Holding  and  Carrying  a  Turkey     .  37 

19.  Method  of  Packing  Turkey  Eggs  for  Shipment     .     .  3& 

20.  Breeding  Flock  of  Bronze  Turkeys  on  Free  Range     .  39 

21.  Showing  How  the  Shingle  or  Paddle  is  Attached  to  a 

Turkey  to  Prevent  It  from  Flying 52 

22.  A  Barrel  Nest  for  Turkey  Hens 53 

23.  Comparison  of  the  Size  of  Turkey,  Guinea  and  Hen 

Eggs 76 

24.  Enclosed  Run  for  Turkey  Poults     .......  77 


x  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE                                                                                                                                                          FACING  PAGE 

25.  Turkey  Hen  Confined  to  a  Coop 82 

26.  Turkey  Shed  Used  to  Shelter  Hens  and  Their  Broods 

During  Rain   Storms 83 

27.  Turkey  Roost  Constructed  in  the  Trees     ....  98 

28.  Flock  of  Turkeys  Gone  to  Roost 99 

29.  Pens  Used  to  Confine  the  Turkeys  During  the  Morn- 

ing    100 

30.  Turkey  Hens  With  Their  Broods  on  Free  Range     .  101 

31.  Turkey  Capon  at  Six  Months  of  Age 108 

32.  Turkey  Drive  on  the  Way 109 

33.  Woman  Dry  Picking  a  Turkey no 

34.  Interior  of  Turkey  Killing  Establishment    .     .     .     .  in 

35.  Dressed  Turkeys  Ready  for  the  Cooling  Room    .     .  112 

36.  Dressed  Turkeys  Packed  in  Barrels 113 

37.  Dressed  Turkeys  Packed  in  Boxes 114 

38.  Farmer  Selling  His  Turkeys  to  the  Highest  Bidder     .  115 

39.  Live  Poultry  Transportation  Car  Loaded  with  Turkeys  120 

40.  Weighing  Up  Live  Turkeys  as  They  are  Unloaded     .  121 


TURKEY   RAISING, 

CHAPTER  I 
History,  Extent  of  the  Industry  and  Opportunities 

A  Native  American. — With  its  size,  its  majestic  ap- 
pearance, its  marvelous  beauty  of  plumage  and  the  most 
savory  character  of  its  flesh,  the  turkey  may  justly  be 
termed  the  king  of  domesticated  fowls.  Moreover,  on 
account  of  its  place  of  origin  and  because  it  is  the  only 
native  fowl  of  this  country  which  has  taken  an  impor- 
tant place  among  domesticated  poultry,  it  is  a  bird  in 
which  Americans  can  feel  a  special  pride  and  pleasure. 
The  different  varieties  of  domesticated  turkeys  as  they 
now  exist  in  the  United  States  are  undoubtedly  a  de- 
velopment from  the  native  wild  turkey  of  North  America. 
Formerly  the  wild  turkey  occurred  in  considerable  num- 
bers in  the  wooded  portions  of  a  range  extending  from 
Maine  southward  to  Florida  and  from  thence  Southwest 
across  Texas,  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  into  Mexico. 
As  the  country  became  more  and  more  settled,  the  number 
of  wild  turkeys  grew  steadily  less,  until  at  the  present 
time  they  are  found  in  the  wild  state  only  in  the  more 
remote  portions  of  their  former  range. 


*- TURKEY  RAISING 
The  Wild  Turkey 

The  species  of  wild  turkey  which  occurred  in  this  range 
is  divided  into  four  varieties.  These  varieties  consist  of 
the  common  or  Eastern  wild  turkey,  the  Florida  wild  tur- 
key, the  Rio  Grande  wild  turkey  and  the  Mexican  or  Mer- 
riam's turkey.  The  common  or  Eastern  wild  turkey  ex- 
tended over  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  from 
Maine  to  Florida  and  in  the  large  swamps  of  the  gulf 
states  to  Louisiana.  The  Florida  wild  turkey  is  found 
in  southern  Florida.  The  Rio  Grande  wild  turkey  has  a 
range  extending  over  southern  Texas  and  northwestern 
Mexico,  while  the  Mexican  or  Merriam's  turkey  is  found 
in  the  mountains  of  Arizona,  western  New  Mexico  and 
southern  Colorado,  south  into  Mexico. 

The  common  or  Eastern  wild  turkey,  the  Rio  Grande 
wild  turkey  and  the  Florida  wild  turkey  are  all  quite  simi- 
lar in  color  in  that  they  have  a  brilliant  bronze  plumage 
and  that  the  tips  tc  the  tail  coverts  and  main  tail  feathers 
run  from  a  yellowish  to  a  deeper  yellowish  brown  or  cof- 
fee color.  In  the  Mexican  wild  turkey  or  Merriam's  tur- 
key, the  plumage  is  of  a  much  darker  bronze  which  is 
shaded  with  black,  while  the  tips  of  the  main  tail  feathers 
and  of  the  tail  coverts  are  white  instead  of  yellow  or 
brown.  In  respect  to  the  white  tips  and  to  the  general 
darker  cast  of  plumage,  the  Mexican  wild  turkey  corre- 
sponds more  closely  than  does  the  common  wild  turkey 
to  our  domesticated  Bronze  variety  and  gives  support  to 


HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

the  belief  that  our  domesticated  varieties  have  arisen  from 
the  Mexican  wild  turkey  rather  than  from  any  of  the 
other  varieties. 

It  appears  that  the  Spaniards  on  conquering  Mexico 
found  the  Mexican  wild  turkey  in  more  or  less  of  a  state 
of  domestication  among  the  Aztec  inhabitants  and  that 
they  sent  specimens  of  this  bird  back  to  Spain.  From  that 
country  it  spread  to  other  parts  of  Europe  and  was  bred 
to  a  considerable  extent  so  that  later  it  was  brought  back 
by  colonists  to  the  United  States  and  was  the  foundation 
from  which  our  present  varieties  have  sprung.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  infusions  of  the  common  or 
Eastern  wild  turkey  blood  have  been  made  in  the  domestic 
varieties  with  considerable  frequency. 

The  Honduras  or  Ocellated  Turkey. — In  addition  to  the 
species  of  wild  turkey  with  its  four  varieties  which  has  a 
large  part  of  its  range  in  the  United  States,  there  is  an- 
other species  of  wild  turkey  known  as  the  Honduras  or 
Ocellated  turkey,  the  range  of  which  is  confined  to  Cen- 
tral America,  extending  from  Yucatan  to  Guatemala. 
This  is  a  very  beautiful  and  much  more  brilliant  bird  than 
the  wild  turkey  of  North  America  but  has  never  been 
successfully  domesticated  and  has  played  no  part  in  the 
making  of  our  domestic  varieties.  It  is  a  considerably 
smaller  bird.  The  neck  feathers  are  a  bronze  black  tipped 
with  green,  the  breast  feathers  greenish  black  tipped  with 
bronze,  the  back  feathers  bright  green  tipped  with  a  bril- 
liant copperish  bronze,  the  fluff  blue  with  a  black  band  and 


TURKEY  RAISING 

tipped  with  a  copperish  red,  the  tail  coverts  bright  blue 
with  a  black  band  and  tipped  with  copperish  bronze,  the 
tail  feathers  silver  gray  with  indistinct  black  penciling  and 
with  a  blue  eye  edged  with  black  located  toward  the  ex- 
tremity of  each  tail  feather,  while  the  tip  of  the  feather  is 
copperish  bronze.  The  feathers  of  the  wing  bow  are 
bright  green  tipped  with  black.  The  wing  coverts  are  a 
bright  copperish  red  and  form  a  beautiful  band  across  the 
wing  while  the  wing  primaries  and  secondaries  are  barred 
with  alternate  dark  and  light  bars  similar  to  the  same 
sections  in  our  domesticated  Bronze  turkey. 

Origin  of  the  Name  Turkey. — In  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  origin  of  the  turkey  traces  clearly  to  North  America, 
some  may  wonder  how  this  bird  obtained  its  present  name 
which  would  suggest  its  origin  as  being  Asiatic.  The 
most  logical  explanation  seems  to  be  that  given  by  E. 
Richardson.  He  suggests  that  the  turkeys  on  being 
brought  to  Spain  from  the  New  World  were  handled  and 
sold  by  the  Hebrew  merchants  of  that  country.  As  the 
turkey  was  quite  generally  confused  with  and  called  pea- 
cock, it  was  natural  therefore  that  these  Hebrew  traders 
should  apply  to  it  their  name  for  the  peacock  or  "tukki." 
More  or  less  common  use  of  this  name  followed  which 
easily  became  in  the  English  language  our  present  name 
turkey.  Such  an  explanation  seems  to  be  much  more 
probable  than  that  the  name  arose  as  a  result  of  an  erro- 
neous impression  that  the  bird  originated  in  or  near 
Turkey. 


FIG.  i.    Wild  turkeys.     (Photograph  front  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


t? 


•I'i, 


M-4  a 
ocq 


Eg 


HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 
Extent  of  the  Industry 

Turkeys  are  now  raised  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  over 
practically  the  entire  United  States.  The  great  bulk  of 
these  fowl,  however,  is  found  on  the  general  farms 
throughout  the  Middle  Western  and  Southern  states. 
Formerly  large  numbers  of  turkeys  were  raised  in  New 
England  and  the  northwestern  part  of  the  United  States, 
but  the  turkeys  coming  from  this  section  are  now  very 
greatly  reduced  in  number.  For  the  same  reasons  that 
the  turkey  production  in  New  England  has  declined  mark- 
edly so  has  there  been  a  great  reduction  in  the  number  of 
turkeys  raised  in  the  United  States  as  a  whole.  The 
census  of  1900  shows  that  there  were  in  this  country 
6,594,695  turkeys  while  10  years  later,  the  number  had 
been  reduced  to  3,688,708.  The  census  of  1920  reports 
3,627,028  turkeys  or  practically  the  same  number  as 
in  1910.  But  while  the  number  has  remained  practically 
stationary,  the  value  due  to  increased  prices,  has  nearly 
doubled  or  from  $6,605,818  in  1910  to  $12,904,989  in 
1920. 

As  shown  by  the  census  of  1920  Texas  is  the  leading 
state  in  the  production  of  turkeys.  Other  states  fol- 
lowed in  this  order :  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  California, 
Kentucky  and  Virginia.  While  the  country  as  a  whole 
showed  a  slight  decrease  in  the  number  of  turkeys  from 
1910  to  1920,  quite  a  number  of  individual  states  showed 
increases,  particularly  the  mountain  states,  which  nearly 


TURKEY  RAISING 

doubled  their  numbers,   and  the   Pacific   states,  which 
showed  a  very  substantial  increase. 

Reasons  for  Decreased  Production 

The  reasons  for  the  decrease  in  turkey  production  are 
several.  Probably  the  principal  cause  is  the  fact  that  as 
the  population  in  any  section  of  the  country  increases  in 
numbers,  there  is  a  tendency  for  agriculture  to  become 
more  intensive  and  the  farms  to  become  smaller.  For  this 
reason  the  amount  of  range  suitable  for  the  raising  of 
turkeys  is  lessened.  Then,  too,  where  farms  are  close 
together,  the  ranging  habits  of  turkeys  cause  them  to 
work  over  the  grain  fields  of  adjacent  farms  and  this  is 
likely  to  cause  ill  will,  for  damage  to  the  growing  crops 
is  attributed  to  them  in  a  much  greater  measure  than  is 
deserved  and  no  credit  is  given  them  for  the  beneficial 
effects  of  the  insect  destruction  which  they  bring  about. 
Many  farmers  have  therefore  given  up  raising  turkeys 
rather  than  have  this  cause  of  trouble  between  themselves 
and  their  neighbors.  Disease  has  likewise  been  quite  a  lim- 
iting factor  in  turkey  raising.  The  mortality  among  the 
young  turkeys,  with  the  usual  care  which  is  given  them 
on  farms,  runs  high.  Outbreaks  of  blackhead  and  of 
some  other  diseases  are  frequent  and  serious  in  certain 
sections  of  the  country,  and  the  losses  resulting  from 
these  outbreaks  have  discouraged  the  farmers  from  at- 
tempting to  raise  turkeys.  In  some  sections,  also,  pred- 

6 


HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

atory  animals,  such  as  the  coyote  and  fox,  have  had  a 
great  influence  in  discouraging  turkey  raising. 

There  is  another  factor,  not  so  generally  recognized, 
but  which,  nevertheless,  has  had  a  decided  effect  in  de- 
creasing turkey  production.  It  is  the  fact  that  the  care 
of  the  sitting  hens  and  of  the  young  poults  during  the 
first  few  weeks  of  their  lives  is  a  very  exacting  occupa- 
tion. If  the  greatest  success  is  to  be  enjoyed,  the  raiser 
must  expect  to  be  ready  to  give  the  turkeys  attention  at 
any  time  of  day  that  they  may  require  it  or  in  other  words 
must  be  thoroughly  on  the  job.  The  turkeys  cannot  be 
neglected  during  this  critical  period  in  order  to  make  a 
trip  to  town  in  the  automobile.  In  this  day  of  modern 
living  when  it  seems  to  become  harder  and  harder  to 
subordinate  pleasure  to  business,  turkey  raising  by  virtue 
of  the  fact  that  it  is  temporarily  exacting  and  confining, 
is  not  increasing  in  popularity  as  an  occupation.  For  the 
person  who  is  willing  to  devote  the  necessary  time  and 
attention  and  who  will  give  the  welfare  of  the  turkeys 
precedence  over  his  ease  or  pleasure,  there  is  an  excellent 
opportunity  to  make  a  splendid  success  in  raising  turkeys. 

Opportunities  for  Turkey  Raising 

With  turkeys  a  national  institution  as  a  holiday  dish, 
particularly  for  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  and  with 
the  constantly  decreasing  number  produced,  there  is  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  those  who  are  favorably  situ- 

7 


TURKEY  RAISING 

ated  to  raise  turkeys  for  profit.  In  the  main,  turkeys  are 
produced  as  a  small  side-line  upon  the  general  farm.  Even 
in  those  sections  of  the  country  where  the  bulk  of  turkeys 
is  grown,  it  is  usual  to  find  flocks  of  not  more  than  50 
or  60  turkeys  on  any  one  place.  In  fact,  the  average 
flock  is  undoubtedly  much  smaller  than  this.  In  Texas, 
the  banner  turkey  state,  flocks  numbering  as  high  as  100 
to  150  are  more  or  less  common.  In  certain  parts  of  the 
Southwest  and  in  some  sections  on  the  Pacific  Coast  there 
are  a  few  persons  engaged  in  turkey  raising  on  a  larger 
scale,  as  high  as  1,000  or  more  turkeys  being  produced  in 
a  year.  Men  on  horseback  are  employed  to  drive  these 
flocks  out  on  range  and  to  herd  them.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  this  is  in  a  section  where  there  is 
unlimited  range  and  in  a  climate  which  is  well  suited  to 
growing  the  young  poults  and  where  disease  does  not 
seem  to  develop  to  so  great  an  extent.  The  semi-arid  or 
irrigated  sections  of  the  West  and  Southwest  because  of 
their  natural  advantages  will  undoubtedly  continue  in  the 
future  to  be  the  places  where  turkey  raising  in  its  most 
specialized  form  will  be  practiced. 

Grain  and  stock  farms  are  particularly  well  suited  for 
turkey  raising  and  it  is  on  such  farms  that  most  of  the 
turkeys  are  found  at  present.  For  greatest  success  in 
this  industry  plenty  of  range  is  essential,  and  where  this 
can  be  given,  the  turkeys  will  find  large  quantities  of 
insects  such  as  grasshoppers,  quantities  of  green  vegeta- 
tion, berries,  weed  seeds,  waste  grain,  nuts  and  acorns  of 

8 


HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

various  kinds  which  they  eat  readily  and  which  makes 
the  cost  of  raising  them  very  small  and  the  profits  large. 

Turkey  Raising  as  a  Business  for  Farm  Women 

Turkey  raising  is  an  agricultural  activity  especially 
adapted  to  the  women  of  the  farms.  Their  natural  moth- 
erly qualities  and  the  aptitude  which  they  possess  to  at- 
tend to  the  details  of  caring  for  the  young  turkeys  make 
them  especially  well  fitted  to  raise  the  turkeys  success- 
fully. Then,  too,  it  is  easier  for  them  to  give  the  turkeys 
the  constant  oversight  and  frequent  attention  which  is  so 
necessary  during  the  brooding  season,  for  the  hens  with 
their  broods  can  be,  and  usually  are,  cooped  near  the 
house.  For  the  woman  who  is  successful  in  raising  tur- 
keys, it  would  be  difficult  to  find  any  other  farm  side-line 
which  will  yield  a  greater  return.  With  prices  as  they 
have  been  during  the  last  few  years,  a  sufficiently  large 
flock  can  be  reared  from  15  to  20  turkey  hens  to  bring  in 
$400  or  $500  a  year.  The  cost  of  raising  turkeys  is  low 
since  they  pick  up  such  a  large  part  of  their  own  living. 
About  the  only  feed  they  need  is  that  which  is  given  them 
while  they  are  young  and  the  grain  required  to  fatten 
them  for  the  market.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  no  other  kind 
of  live  stock  can  be  raised  so  cheaply  on  the  farm  as  a 
flock  of  turkeys  nor  is  there  any  which  brings  a  better 
price  per  pound.  Even  with  high  priced  grain,  turkeys 
given  a  good  range  can  be  turned  off  to  market  at  a  cost 


TURKEY  RAISING 

not  to  exceed  $i  a  head  for  feed  consumed.  The  neces- 
sary investment  for  raising  turkeys  runs  low  both  in  the 
matter  of  breeding  stock  and  equipment  required.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  other  kind  of  live  stock  requires  as  small 
an  investment  for  the  return  yielded  as  do  turkeys. 

A  brisk  demand  will  be  found  by  any  one  having  breed- 
ing stock  of  some  pure  variety  for  sale  and  this  will 
greatly  augment  the  possible  profit.  As  an  example  of 
what  may  be  accomplished  it  may  be  stated  that  a  farm 
woman,  a  breeder  of  Bronze  turkeys  of  fine  quality,  re- 
cently raised  200  turkeys  in  one  season,  and  sold  over 
$1,500  worth  of  stock,  being  compelled  to  refuse  more 
than  $500  worth  of  additional  business.  Most  of  her 
stock  was  sold  for  breeding  purposes  except  17  late 
hatched  toms,  which  -were  sold  for  slaughter  on  the  local 
market  early  in  February  at  35  cents  a  pound,  and  for 
which  she  received  a  total  of  $109. 

A  Missouri  farmer  and  wife  have  sold  for  the  past  four 
years  an  average  of  more  than  $500  a  year  of  market  tur- 
keys. At  no  time  did  they  have  more  than  15  breeding 
hens  and  sometimes  not  more  than  12. 

Turkeys  as  Insect  Destroyers 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  insects,  such  as  grasshoppers, 
which  the  turkeys  pick  up  in  ranging  over  the  farm, 
form  a  considerable  part  of  the  diet  of  turkeys  during 
the  summer,  the  great  value  of  these  birds  as  insect 
destroyers  is  often  overlooked.  Much  is  said  about 

10 


-s: 
•a. 


co 


FIG.  4.     Wild  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


HISTORY,  EXTENT  OF  THE  INDUSTRY 

the  damage  they  do  to  growing  crops  and  little  or  noth- 
ing about  the  good.  As  a  matter  of  fact  turkeys  do 
little  damage  to  crops  under  ordinary  conditions  where 
they  can  find  an  ample  supply  of  the  feed  which  they 
love  to  glean  in  their  own  way.  But  the  loss  which 
they  prevent  by  the  destruction  of  insects  is  often  very 
considerable.  Recently  attention  was  called  to  the  fact 
that  in  one  farming  community  the  only  farmer  who 
was  successful  in  securing  a  yield  of  clover  seed  was  one 
who  had  allowed  a  flock  of  turkeys  to  range  in  his  clover 
field.  In  the  same  locality  another  farmer  had  his  oats 
crop  saved  from  grasshoppers  by  turning  in  a  flock  of 
turkeys  to  prey  on  the  grasshoppers.  A  brood  of  turkeys 
when  ranging  through  a  field  seeking  their  feed  go  about 
their  work  in  a  very  systematic  manner,  often  advancing 
in  a  line  at  distances  apart  just  about  great  enough  to 
enable  them  to  cover  all  of  the  ground  between  one  an- 
other as  they  advance.  Not  many  grasshoppers  get  by 
this  advancing  line. 

Raising  Turkeys  in  Confinement 

Most  efforts  to  raise  turkeys  in  confinement  have  not 
been  very  successful  and  it  has  generally  been  considered 
that  to  hatch  and  rear  the  turkeys  artificially  and  to  keep 
them  under  rather  intensive  conditions  was  impracticable 
and  unprofitable  largely  for  the  following  reasons :  First, 
that  exercise  is  essential  to  health  and  vigor.  Second, 
that  brooding  the  young  poults  artificially  requires  too 

II 


TURKEY  RAISING 

much  time  and  personal  attention.  Third,  that  with  ordi- 
nary management  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  down 
disease.  Fourth,  that  an  experienced  feeder  is  required 
to  feed  turkeys  in  confinement  successfully.  It  will  be 
noted,  however,  that  all  but  the  first  of  these  reasons  can- 
not be  urged  against  the  person  who  has  had  considerable 
experience  and  who  knows  how  to  care  for  turkeys.  In 
fact,  enough  instances  are  known  of  where  turkeys  are 
being  raised  by  artificial  methods  and  under  restricted 
conditions  to  demonstrate  that  with  proper  care  and  at- 
tention this  is  possible,  although  it  is  not  recommended  as 
a  general  practice  where  greater  range  is  available.  Fur- 
ther details  in  regard  to  artificial  methods  will  be  found 
on  page  85. 

Prices 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  change  that  has  taken 
place  in  the  price  received  by  producers  of  market  turkeys 
for  the  last  six  years.  It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  the 
range  in  price  according  to  the  section  of  the  country  in 
which  the  birds  are  raised  and  put  on  the  market.  In  a 
general  way,  the  farther  from  the  great  consuming  cen- 
ters the  birds  are  produced,  the  smaller  is  the  price  re- 
ceived by  the  grower.  The  following  table  illustrates 
this  well. 

Prices  of  Breeding  Stock. — As  might  be  expected  prices 
for  breeding  stock  vary  widely  depending  upon  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  birds  themselves  and  upon  the  reputation 

12 


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TURKEY  RAISING 

of  the  breeder.  Breeding  hens  can  ordinarily  be  pur- 
chased for  from  $7  or  $8  to  $25  each,  occasional  birds 
bringing  more  than  this.  Breeding  toms  can  be  purchased 
for  from  $10  to  $50  with  some  birds  sold  as  high  as  $100. 
Turkey  eggs  for  hatching  when  they  can  be  bought  at  all 
sell  for  50  cents  to  $1.50  each.  Many  turkey  raisers, 
however,  prefer  not  to  sell  eggs  for  hatching,  feeling  that 
they  can  make  a  greater  profit  by  hatching  a*nd  rearing 
the  young. 


16 


CHAPTER  II 
Varieties,  Mating  and  Showing 

Where  turkeys  are  raised  in  the  United  States,  the  birds 
kept  may  be  one  of  the  standard  varieties,  various  crosses 
between  the  standard  varieties,  or,  somewhat  rarely,  the 
common  or  Eastern  wild  turkey.  Standard  varieties  are 
those  which  are  listed  and  described  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.*  The  standard  varieties  consist 
of  the  following:  The  Bronze,  the  Narragansett,  the 
White  Holland,  the  Black,  the  Slate  and  the  Bourbon 
Red.  In  referring  to  individuals  of  any  of  the  standard 
varieties  there  are  three  separate  classes  of  males  recog- 
nized and  two  classes  of  hens.  The  males  are  adult 
cocks,  that  is,  birds  two  years  old  or  over ;  yearling  cocks, 
birds  one  year  old  and  less  than  two;  and  cockerels,  birds 
less  than  one  year  old.  The  female  classes  consist  of 
hens,  birds  one  year  old  or  over;  and  pullets,  birds  less 
than  one  year  old.  Males  of  all  classes  are  frequently 
referred  to  as  toms  or  gobblers  rather  than  as  cocks  or 
cockerels.  The  young  turkeys  of  both  sexes  are  gener- 
ally called  poults. 

*The  American  Standard  of  Perfection  is  a  book  published  by 
the  American  Poultry  Association  describing  all  the  breeds  and 
varieties  of  chickens,  ducks,  geese  and  turkeys  recognized  by  that 
association.  This  book  is  the  guide  by  which  all  poultry  shows  in 
the  United  States  are  judged. 

17 


TURKEY  RAISING 
Size 

In  size,  the  common  wild  turkey  runs  smaller  than  any 
of  the  standard  varieties  of  domesticated  turkeys.  Wild 
hens  usually  range  from  8  or  9  to  12  pounds  in  weight 
while  the  males  may  run  as  heavy  as  20  pounds,  although 
this  is  considered  very  good  weight  for  a  wild  torn.  It 
may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  while  the  pure  domes- 
ticated varieties  are  larger  than  the  wild  fowls,  turkeys 
as  commonly  kept  and  bred  on  farms  where  many  of  them 
receive  indifferent  attention  and  where  the  variety  may 
not  be  pure,  often  do  not  run  much  heavier  in  weight  than 
the  wild  turkey.  The  following  table  gives  the  standard 
weights  in  pounds  of  the  various  ages  and  sexes  of  the 
domesticated  standard  varieties: 

Adult  Yearling 

Variety           Cock  Cock     Cockerel  Hen  Pullet 

Bronze    36  33  25  20  16 

Narragansett    .30  25  20  18  12 

White  Holland.    28  24  20  18  14 

Black 27  22  18  18  12 

Slate   27  22  18  18  12 

Bourbon  Red..    30  25  20  18  12 

As  a  rule  the  demand  for  breeding  stock  is  for  heavy 
birds,  those  heavier  than  standard  seeming  to  be  in  active 
demand.  The  fact  that  the  larger  specimens  seem  to  find 
favor  over  the  smaller  birds  in  the  shows  probably  ac- 

18 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

counts  for  this.  For  this  reason  breeders  are  inclined  to 
use  their  larger  birds  in  their  matings  in  order  to  be  able 
to  supply  the  demand.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  use  of 
birds  of  extreme  size  cannot  be  generally  recommended 
as  it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  associated  with  infertility, 
poor  hatches  and  soft-shelled  eggs  than  when  more  mod- 
erate sized  breeders  are  used.  In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  breeders  but  little  if  any  larger  than  standard  are  the 
best  size  to  use. 

Popularity  of  Varieties 

On  account  of  its  larger  size  and  also  the  fact  that  this 
variety  has,  perhaps,  been  more  carefully,  more  syste- 
matically and  more  extensively  bred  than  any  of  the 
others,  the  Bronze  turkey  is  the  most  commonly  kept. 
Turkeys  are  sold  by  weight  and  for  this  reason  the  larger 
birds  bring  the  greater  returns.  A  good  size  bird  is  in 
demand  where  a  considerable  number  of  people  are  to  be 
served  as  in  hotels,  boarding  houses,  etc.  While  there  is 
a  more  widespread  demand  for  a  medium  sized  turkey  for 
family  use,  the  larger  birds  find  a  ready  sale  and  in  gen- 
eral it  may  be  said  that  the  production  of  heavier  birds 
proves  to  be  more  profitable. 

It  is  quite  a  commonly  held  opinion  that  the  Bronze 
variety  is  more  hardy  than  the  other  domesticated  varie- 
ties, due  perhaps  to  the  occasional  introduction  of  wild 
blood  in  an  effort  to  keep  up  the  Bronze  color.  It  is  diffi- 
cult, however,  to  trace  any  real  sustained  difference  be- 

19 


TURKEY  RAISING 

tween  the  vigor  and  hardiness  of  the  different  varieties  as 
these  qualities  and  others  differ  to  a  marked  degree  in  dif- 
ferent individuals  and  strains  of  the  same  variety.  Proper 
management  and  proper  breeding  have  much  to  do  with 
the  hardiness  and  stamina  of  the  stock.  It  is  claimed  by 
some  raisers  that  the  White  Holland  lay  more  eggs  than 
the  other  varieties  and  also  that  the  White  Holland  and 
the  Bourbon  Red  are  inclined  to  be  somewhat  more  do- 
mestic in  their  habits. 

Considerations  in  Mating 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  turkeys  are  kept  for  meat 
production,  not  primarily  for  egg  production.  In  select- 
ing the  breeders,  therefore,  it  is  essential  that  they  pos- 
sess a  type  or  shape  of  body  which  is  consistent  with  meat 
carrying  capacity.  Select  those  birds  which  have  a  deep 
long  wide  body,  a  broad  back,  especially  across  the  shoul- 
ders, and  a  round,  deep,  full  breast  which  comes  well  for- 
ward. A  strong  well-knit  frame  is  shown  by  birds  which 
are  of  good  bone,  that  is,  which  have  thick  sturdy  shanks 
and  with  the  legs  perfectly  straight  and  set  square  under 
the  bird  and  well  apart.  Avoid  any  birds  which  are  too 
long-legged,  which  are  too  narrow-bodied  or  in  which  the 
legs  tend  to  be  knock-kneed  or  to  crook  at  the  hock. 

It  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  birds  which  are  in- 
clined to  be  short  in  leg,  while  they  will  often  reach  a 
greater  weight  the  first  season,  are  not  the  birds  which 
will  eventually  develop  into  the  largest  specimens.  It  is 

20 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

well,  therefore,  to  avoid  breeders  which  are  especially 
short  in  legs  and  to  select  those  which  are  moderately 
long  in  legs  but  not  too  long.  Avoid  also  as  breeders  any 
birds  which  are  lop-sided  or  which  have  crooked  breasts 
or  crooked  backs.  The  head  should  be  of  good  size  and 
length  and  of  a  clean  healthy  appearance.  Avoid  heads 
which  tend  to  be  too  short. 

Certain  differences  in  the  head  over  those  of  the  ordi- 
nary domestic  fowl  need  comment.  In  the  first  place  the 
turkey  has  no  comb  such  as  is  found  on  the  chicken,  but 
does  have  a  fleshy  elastic  proturberance  extending  out 
from  the  head  above  the  base  of  the  upper  bill,  and  which 
when  expanded  to  its  full  length  hangs  down  beside  and 
below  the  bill.  This  is  referred  to  variously  as  the  dew- 
bill  or  snout.  The  turkey  does  not  have  two  wattles  as  in 
the  chicken  but  has  a  single  throat  wattle  extending  from 
the  underside  of  the  lower  bill  part  way  down  the  throat. 
The  head  is  devoid  of  feathers  and  both  the  head  and 
upper  part  of  the  neck  are  covered  with  rough  or  caruncu- 
lated  skin.  There  is  some  tendency  for  the  caruncles  of 
the  males  to  be  too  smooth,  that  is  not  heavy  or  distinct 
enough  so  as  to  give  a  good  masculine  appearance.  The 
color  of  the  head  and  neck  is  red,  which  at  times  changes 
to  a  lighter  or  bluish  color. 

Occasionally,  turkeys  occur  which  have  more  or  less 
of  a  crest  or  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  head.  These  are  rare, 
however,  and  there  is  no  breed  or  variety  which  possesses 
this  characteristic. 

The  back  line  of  the  turkey  beginning  at  the  base  of  the 

21 


TURKEY  RAISING 

neck  shows  quite  an  even  convex  curve  which  is  carried 
out  also  in  the  line  of  the  tail  which,  unlike  that  of  the 
ordinary  domestic  fowl,  extends  downward  rather  than 
upward.  The  tail  itself  should  not  be  too  closely  folded 
but  should  show  a  fairly  good  spread  both  when  closed 
and  when  extended  or  spread. 

Turkeys  of  both  sexes  show  a  tuft  of  coarse  hair 
growing  from  the  breast  called  the  beard.  This  is  longer 
and  more  prominent  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  The 
feet  should  be  of  good  size  with  strong  well  formed  toes. 
It  is  necessary  in  this  connection  to  avoid  a  duck-toed 
condition,  that  is  to  say,  where  the  rear  toe  turns  around 
to  the  side  or  toward  the  front.  It  is  desirable  to  select 
birds  with  good  bright  eyes,  because  these  birds  are  as  a 
rule  the  strongest  individuals  in  the  flock.  In  some  speci- 
mens there  is  a  tendency  for  the  back  to  be  straight  rather 
than  curved,  and  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  these  straight- 
backed  birds  in  breeding.  Turkeys  should  have  good 
strong  wings  of  moderately  good  size  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  bird.  Any  tendency  toward  wings  which 
are  too  long  so  that  when  folded  the  ends  are  carried  up 
on  the  back  and  tend  to  lap  should  be  avoided. 

In  addition  to  the  selection  of  birds  on  the  basis  of  their 
general  body  type  or  shape  it  is  of  primary  importance  to 
make  sure  that  the  birds  used  for  breeders  are  well  ma- 
tured, which  means  early  hatched,  and  that  they  are  strong 
and  vigorous  individuals.  It  is  also  necessary  in  all  of  the 
standard  varieties  to  select  the  breeders  which  approach 
as  closely  as  possible  to  the  standard  or  ideal  in  their  color 

22 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

and  markings.  Too  great  care  cannot  be  exercised  in 
selecting  the  breeders,  for  poor  results  as  exemplified  in 
eggs  which  will  not  hatch  or  in  weak  poults  or  in  small 
scrubby  turkeys  are  often  the  result  of  carelessness  in  the 
selection  of  the  birds  for  breeders.  In  general  it  may  be 
said  that  turkeys  breed  quite  true  and  that  there  will  be 
less  culls  from  the  turkey  matings  than  there  are  from 
most  matings  of  chickens.  This  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  turkeys  are  not  so  far  removed  from  their  wild 
ancestors  nor  have  the  different  varieties  been  made  as 
the  result  of  such  radical  crosses. 

Making  the  Mating 

The  Wild  Turkey. — The  Wild  Turkey  is  not  a  standard 
variety,  nor  is  it  kept  in  domestication  to  any  great  ex- 
tent. However,  there  are  some  breeders  of  the  wild 
variety  and  the  wild  blood  is  in  more  or  less  frequent 
demand  for  the  purpose  of  crossing  with  the  Bronze 
variety.  The  object  of  crossing  is  to  improve  the  vigor 
and  vitality  of  the  domesticated  stock  and  also  to  improve 
the  color  or  sheen  of  the  Bronze  variety.  Wild  turkeys 
should  have  a  general  plumage  brilliance  which  is  as 
great  or  preferably  greater  than  that  of  the  best  Bronze 
turkeys.  The  wild  variety,  in  addition  to  being  more  bril- 
liant than  the  Bronze,  differs  from  it  principally  in  the 
matter  of  the  color  of  the  edging  on  the  tail  feathers  and 
the  tail  coverts.  In  the  wild  variety,  this  edging  varies 
all  the  way  from  a  deep  red,  cherry,  chocolate  or  coffee 

23 


TURKEY  RAISING 

color  to  a  lighter  shade  which  may  be  yellow  or  creamy, 
while  in  the  Bronze  variety,  this  edging  should  be  a  pure 
white.  The  introduction  of  wild  blood  in  the  Bronze 
variety  can  usually  be  detected  by  the  fact  that  this  edging 
is  not  pure  white. 

When  crossed  with  the  Bronze,  the  wild  turkey  is  more 
prepotent.  In  fact,  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  tell 
by  the  color  a  three- fourths  wild  bird  from  a  pure  wild. 
However,  the  crossing  increases  the  size  over  the  wild. 
Half  wild  gobblers  are  often  used  in  introducing  wild 
blood  into  the  domestic  turkeys.  It  was  hoped  at  one  time 
that  crossing  with  the  wild  variety  would  result  in  greater 
immunity  from  blackhead,  but  this  has  not  proven  to  be 
the  case,  and  the  pure  wild  variety  seems  to  be  about  as 
subject  to  blackhead,  at  least  under  domestication,  as  any 
of  the  domesticated  varieties. 

To  most  people  the  meat  of  the  wild  turkey  is  superior 
to  that  of  the  domesticated  on  account  of  its  more  gamey 
flavor.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  wild  bird 
is  a  tighter,  harder  feathered  bird  than  the  domestic  tur- 
key, and  that  it  has  a  more  racy  appearance  of  body  and 
is  of  a  more  restless,  nervous  temperament.  These  birds 
are  very  quick  motioned  and  can  run  very  rapidly  and 
also  fly  very  well.  The  egg  of  the  wild  turkey  is  smaller 
and  more  pointed  than  that  of  the  domesticated  varieties. 

There  is  quite  a  difference  in  the  shade  of  coloring  of 
wild  turkeys  from  different  sections  of  the  country.  The 
wild  turkey  from  the  extreme  South  seems  to  be  some- 
what more  brilliant  in  color  than  the  birds  farther 

24 


FIG.  5-     Bronze  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  6.     Bronze  turkey,  female.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.} 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

North.  In  mating,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  be  sure 
that  the  birds  from  the  same  general  section  of  the  coun- 
try are  mated  together  rather  than  to  use  in  the  mating 
birds  from  different  sections  in  which  the  coloration 
varies.  Where  birds  from  the  same  general  section  are 
used,  the  wild  turkey  breeds  very  true  in  color.  However, 
birds  must  be  avoided  as  breeders  which  tend  to  run  light 
or  mossy  on  the  wings. 

The  Bronze  Turkey. — As  stated  under  the  wild  turkey, 
wild  blood  has  been  introduced  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
into  the  Bronze  variety.  This  has  had  the  effect  of  spoil- 
ing the  plumage  color  to  some  extent,  especially  in  causing 
the  white  band  at  the  end  of  the  feathers  to  be  creamy  or 
yellowish  brown  instead  of  silver  white.  However,  the 
^occasional  introduction  of  some  wild  blood  has  been  neces- 
sary in  order  to  keep  up  the  rich  bronze  color  especially 
on  the  back.  In  a  general  way  the  Bronze  variety  may 
be  said  to  be  of  a  rich,  brilliant,  copperish  bronze  against 
a  background  of  black  and  brown  and  contrasted  by  the 
clear  white  tips  of  the  tail  coverts  and  main  tail  feathers. 
The  brilliancy  of  the  plumage  is  usually  greatest  when  the 
birds  are  two  or  three  years  old,  improving  in  this  respect 
over  the  younger  birds.  The  brilliancy  of  the  plumage  is 
also  greatest  at  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season.  As 
the  breeding  season  progresses  some  of  the  brilliancy  is 
lost  from  the  male  plumage,  and  this  is  likewise  true  of 
the  hens  soon  after  they  begin  to  lay. 

In  selecting  the  breeders  for  the  production  of  exhibi- 
tion stock,  breed  from  birds  with  good  open  bronze  bar- 

25 


TURKEY  RAISING 

ring  and  with  a  good  white  edging  of  fluff.  The  fluff  is 
likely  to  be  the  weakest  section,  but  if  the  bird  is  good  in 
fluff  it  is  likely  to  be  good  elsewhere.  The  birds  selected 
as  breeders  should  be  an  even  bronze  color  extending  over 
the  whole  length  of  the  back  to  the  tail.  Sometimes  the 
back  runs  too  dark  or  too  near  on  the  black,  lacking  the 
bronze.  This  must  be  avoided.  The  bronze  bar  on  the 
feathers  should  be  straight  and  extend  across  the  entire 
width  of  the  feathers.  It  should  not  show  any  tendency 
to  be  notched  at  the  center  nor  should  it  fail  at  each  side 
of  the  feather  so  that  the  bronze  shows  only  in  the  center. 
A  width  of  the  bronze  bar  of  a  half  to  i  inch  depending 
on  the  section  is  good,  but  some  breeders  consider  that  the 
wider  this  bar  the  better.  The  bronze  bar  should  be  edged 
by  a  good  black  bar,  and  this  in  turn  edged  with  a  good 
distinct  white  end  or  edging  in  those  sections  in  which  a 
white  end  to  the  feather  is  called  for.  In  the  wings,  the 
flight  feathers  should  be  distinctly  barred  across  with 
alternate  bars  of  black  and  white  which  should  be  equal 
in  width  and  which  should  run  as  straight  as  possible 
across  the  feather. 

The  white  bars  should  be  as  free  as  possible  from  any 
black  peppering.  There  should  likewise  be  as  distinct 
and  clear  cut  a  line  between  the  dark  and  white  bars  as 
can  be  obtained  so  that  the  edging  of  the  bars  will  not  be 
irregular  and  so  that  the  color  of  the  dark  bar  will  not  be 
brown  on  the  edge  where  the  two  colors  join.  There  is 
also  somewhat  of  a  tendency  for  the  white  wing  barring 
to  be  too  narrow,  which  will  cause  too  dark  an  appearance 

26 


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FIG.  8.  Feathers  from  a  Bronze  turkey  hen.  (Photograph 
from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.} 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

of  the  wing.  A  tendency  for  the  barring  to  run  together 
in  some  cases  and  in  other  cases  to  be  zigzag  in  shape,  that 
is,  not  straight  across  the  wing  must  be  avoided. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  the  barring  of  one  flight  feather 
match  or  correspond  with  the  barring  of  the  next  flight 
feather  so  that  there  will  be  a  continuous  or  uniform 
series  of  bars  across  the  flight  feathers  as  a  whole.  Some- 
times the  barring  does  not  carry  well  across  the  narrow 
lower  edge  of  the  flight  feathers  and  these  sections  tend  to 
be  largely  white  or  brown.  This  defect  is  very  objection- 
able. In  some  cases  the  tips  of  the  flight  feathers  are  apt 
to  lack  the  white  barring  entirely.  This  is  a  defect  which 
should  be  avoided.  Sometimes,  also,  especially  in  males, 
one  or  more  solid  black  flight  feathers  will  occur.  Avoid 
breeding  from  such  birds  as  this  is  a  disqualification  and  as 
they  will  sometimes  produce  a  nearly  black  sport.  The  tail 
feathers  likewise  should  show  a  good  bronze  bar  followed 
by  a  black  band  and  with  a  good  wide  silvery  white  edg- 
ing. A  good  spread  of  tail  is  also  desired.  There  is  more 
or  less  of  a  tendency  for  the  bronze  bar  to  be  wanting, 
faulty,  or  scanty  as  the  center  of  the  tail  is  approached. 
In  other  words,  the  bronze  barring  may  often  be  better 
on  the  outer  tail  feathers  than  on  the  center  tail  feathers. 

What  is  desired  is  bronze  barring  which  runs  even  and 
uniform  entirely  across  the  tail.  Below  the  bronze  bar- 
ring the  tail  feathers  should  be  barred  across  with  brown 
and  this  brown  should  be  arranged  in  as  regular  bars  as 
possible  so  that  the  feathers  appear  to  be  penciled.  Not 
infrequently  the  brown  occurs  as  a  more  or  less  uniform 

27 


TURKEY  RAISING 

stippling  over  these  feathers  and  distinct  bars  are  not 
formed.  Sometimes  also  the  main  tail  feathers  are  nearly 
black  in  color,  being  almost  completely  lacking  in  brown. 
Birds  with  such  tail  feathers  should  not  be  selected  as 
breeders.  Sometimes  there  occur  near  the  base  of  the 
two  center  main  tail  feathers,  and  more  rarely  this  is  true 
of  the  four  center  feathers,  white  bars  or  penciling.  These 
are  a  serious  defect  and  birds  possessing  them  should  be 
avoided  as  breeders. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  the  plumage  color 
of  the  male  is  always  more  brilliant  than  that  of  the 
female.  Otherwise,  the  plumage  color  of  the  female  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  male  except  that  she  shows  a  white 
edging  on  practically  all  of  her  feathers.  The  more 
closely  the  brilliance  of  the  female's  plumage  approaches 
that  of  the  male  the  better.  Young  Bronze  turkeys  have 
legs  which  are  quite  dark  in  color,  being  nearly  black  but 
having  some  red  in  them.  As  the  birds  grow  older  this 
color  tends  to  get  brighter  and  to  show  more  red. 

The  Narragansett  Turkey. — In  general  it  may  be  said 
that  the  Narragansett  has  much  the  same  general  color 
scheme  as  the  Bronze  turkey.  Because  the  feathers  end  in 
a  band  or  bar  of  white  or  gray  this  variety  has  a  general 
color  which  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  Bronze.  In  this 
connection,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  necessary 
to  guard  against  birds  which  are  washed  out  or  too  light 
in  color.  It  is  likewise  necessary  to  guard  against  birds, 
especially  males,  which  run  too  dark  in  color.  Such  males 
are  likely  to  have  solid  black  backs.  In  the  wing,  the  pen- 

28 


FIG.   9.    Narragansett   turkey,    male.     (Photograph   from   the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  .S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

ciling  or  barring  of  the  Narragansett  should  be  just  the 
same  as  in  the  Bronze.  The  wing  bar,  however,  should  be 
white  where  the  bar  on  the  Bronze  turkey  is  bronze.  This 
variety  runs  very  good  -with  respect  to  the  white  edging 
of  the  feathers.  While  young  birds  will  occasionally 
show  creaminess  in  this  edging,  this  almost  invariably 
comes  good  and  white  in  the  second  year. 

As  in  the  Bronze  variety,  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against 
solid  black  primary  feathers  which  may  sometimes  occur. 
The  Narragansett  turkey  should  show  metallic  in  its 
black  but  should  have  no  indication  of  bronze  barring. 
Sometimes  Bronze  birds  are  produced  from  a  Narragan- 
sett mating,  but  these  should  never  be  used  for  breeding. 
When  Bronze  and  Narragansett  turkeys  are  crossed  re- 
gardless of  the  direction  of  the  cross,  part  of  the  offspring 
will  be  bronze  in  color  and  part  Narragansett  and  there 
does  not  seem  to  be  any  particular  blending  of  the  two 
color  schemes. 

The  White  Holland  Turkey— The  White  Holland 
should  be  a  pure  white  throughout  in  both  sexes.  In  this 
variety,  however,  both  buff  and  black  sometimes  occur 
and  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  foreign  color  of  any 
kind.  Bronze  and  white  splashed  feathers  sometimes 
occur  in  the  fluff  and  back,  and  buff  or  black  may  occur 
on  the  body  and  occasionally  in  the  primaries.  Probably 
the  greatest  difficulty  in  plumage  color  is  black  flecking. 
This  consists  of  very  narrow  black  streaks  or  flecks  rang- 
ing from  very  small  in  size  to  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  even 
half  an  inch  long,  occurring  especially  in  the  feathers  of 

29 


TURKEY  RAISING 

the  thigh,  back,  tail  coverts  and  breast.  This  black  fleck- 
ing corresponds  to  what  is  known  as  ticking  in  white 
fowls.  White  turkeys  sometimes  occur  as  a  sport  from 
the  Bronze,  and  white  turkeys  also  occur  occasionally 
in  a  natural  state  as  a  sport  from  the  wild  turkey.  It  is 
undoubtedly  from  this  sporting  that  the  White  Holland 
variety  has  arisen.  As  turkeys  of  this  variety  age  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  pink  leg  color  to  fade  and  this  color 
also  fades  in  the  female  with  laying. 

The  Black  Turkey. — In  this  variety  a  plumage  color  is 
desired  in  both  sexes  which  is  a  lustrous  greenish  black 
throughout.  In  other  words,  this  should  show  a  good 
clean  black  with  a  prominent  green  sheen.  The  tail 
coverts  often  shade  to  a  brownish  cast  especially  in  the 
female,  and  this,  of  course,  is  undesirable.  It  is  likewise 
necessary  to  guard  against  any  bronze  cast  over  the  back. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  guard  against  barred  feathers  or  an 
edging  to  the  feathers  either  of  bronze  or  white.  This 
white  edging  which  occasionally  occurs  is  especially  likely 
to  appear  in  the  breast,  neck  and  tail  coverts.  Not  in- 
frequently young  Black  turkeys  will  show  white  tips  to 
the  small  finishing  feathers  under  the  wings  until  they 
moult  in  as  yearlings  when  this  disappears.  Young  tur- 
keys are  also  quite  likely  to  show  white  tips  to  some  of 
the  wing  feathers  but  this  disappears  as  the  mature  plu- 
mage is  obtained.  There  is  likewise  a  tendency  in  young 
birds  for  white  feathers  or  bronze  stripes  to  appear  over 
the  back,  but  such  birds  usually  come  out  as  good  black 
birds  when  they  get  their  mature  plumage.  When  the 

30 


FIG.  ii     White  Holland  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  12.    Black  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

poults  hatch  they  are  almost  half  white,  the  breast  being 
entirely  white.  When  the  first  feathers  appear  they  will 
also  show  more  or  less  white,  but  they  should  moult  into 
mature  plumage  entirely  black. 

The  Slate  Turkey. — This  variety  has  also  been  called 
the  Blue  or  Lavender  turkey.  In  this  variety  the  birds 
of  both  sexes  should  be  of  a  slaty  or  ashy  blue  color 
throughout.  However,  there  is  a  decided  tendency  for 
the  plumage  color  to  be  flecked,  ticked  or  dotted  with 
black,  but  the  freer  the  plumage  is  from  this  black  ticking 
the  better  the  birds  are  for  breeding.  There  is  also  a 
tendency  for  a  buff  edging  or  lacing  to  occur  in  all  parts 
of  the  body  plumage  which  may  cause  a  rusty  appearance, 
and  this  must  be  guarded  against.  It  is  likewise  necessary 
to  guard  against  solid  black  feathers  in  the  primaries  or 
tail,  or  black  in  these  feathers.  Frequent  lacing  of  buff 
or  red,  over  the  back  and  tail  coverts  especially,  must  like- 
wise be  selected  against.  There  is  also  a  tendency  toward 
a  general  washed-out  appearance  and  birds  showing  this 
are  not  desirable  as  breeders.  There  is  very  little  ten- 
dency for  the  plumage  to  show  any  blue  lacing. 

When  two  Slate  turkeys  are  bred  together  the  resulting 
offspring  may  show  quite  a  wide  variation  in  color,  some 
of  them  coming  blue,  some  black,  some  very  much  on  the 
Bronze  and  occasional  birds  which  are  nearly  pure  white. 
Very  occasionally  also  birds  occur  in  which  the  plumage 
is  a  bluish  red  or  faded  or  dirty  red  over  the  back  and 
tail  coverts.  There  are  very  few  breeders  of  Slate  turkeys 
at  the  present  time  and  no  one  seems  to  have  tried  breed- 

31 


TURKEY  RAISING 

ing  the  black  and  nearly  white  offspring  from  Slate  mat- 
ings  together  to  see  if  they  would  produce  all  blue  off- 
spring as  is  the  case  in  the  Blue  Andalusian  chicken. 
While  there  do  not  seem  to  be  many  breeders  of  Slate  tur- 
keys, more  or  less  Slates  will  be  found  in  practically  any 
flock  gathered  together  for  market.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  some  of  these  Slates  occur  as  the  result  of  the 
general  crossing  and  mixing  of  varieties  which  is  so  often 
practiced  by  market  turkey  growers. 

The  Bourbon  Red  Turkey. — In  color  this  variety 
should  be  a  good  deep  red  with  white  flights  and  secon- 
daries and  with  white  main  tail  feathers.  It  is  rather 
difficult,  however,  to  get  good  depth  of  red  color  without 
more  or  less  black  throughout  the  plumage.  This  black 
occurs  most  commonly  as  an  edging  or  lacing  at  the  end 
of  the  feathers.  In  the  fluff  and  in  the  undercolor  of 
various  other  sections  there  may  also  occur  a  dim  trans- 
verse penciling  of  black  or  dark.  More  or  less  black  fleck- 
ing or  ticking  is  likely  to  occur  throughout  the  plumage. 
As  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  plumage  color  to  run  too 
light  in  shade  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  a  body 
color  which  is  on  the  buff  rather  than  on  the  red.  There 
is  quite  a  likelihood  of  more  or  less  red  occurring  in  the 
sections  of  the  wing  and  tail  which  should  be  white. 

More  than  one-fourth  red  in  any  of  these  sections  con- 
stitutes a  disqualification  but  it  is  seldom  that  birds  are 
disqualified  for  red  in  any  of  these  sections.  It  is  com- 
paratively easy  to  keep  the  primaries  white,  a  little  more 
difficult  to  keep  the  secondaries  white,  and  still  more  diffi- 

32 


FIG.  13.     Black  turkey,  female.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


FIG.  14.     Slate  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.} 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

cult  to  keep  the  tail  white.  If  the  bird  has  a  good  deep 
red  body  color  there  is  a  greater  likelihood  of  more  or 
less  red  or  buff  occurring  in  the  white  sections  of  the 
wings  and  tail.  Red  is  more  likely  to  occur  in  the  main 
tail  feathers  at  the  outer  sides  of  the  tail  while  the  center 
tail  feathers  are  most  likely  to  be  clear  white. 

i 

Preparing  Turkeys  for  the  Show 

There  is  not  much  that  needs  to  be  done  in  preparing 
turkeys  for  exhibition.  Since  birds  of  good  size  and 
weight  are  usually  favored  and  because  turkeys  often 
shrink  as  much  as  2  or  3  pounds  during  their  shipment 
to  the  show  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  in  a  good  con- 
dition of  flesh.  This  does  not  mean  that  they  need  to 
be  especially  fat,  although  turkeys  are  sometimes  fat- 
tened to  quite  an  extent  in  order  to  have  their  weight 
as  high  as  possible  when  shown.  Corn  is  as  good  a 
material  as  any  to  feed  in  preparing  turkeys  for  the 
show  so  as  to  get  them  in  good  condition  of  flesh.  If  the 
birds  are  used  to  eating  any  good  mash  feed  this  can  be 
used  and  will  put  them  in  condition  quicker  than  corn. 
However,  if  they  are  not  used  to  eating  mash  they  will 
not  take  to  it  readily  and  will  not  eat  it  freely  for  some 
time,  with  the  result  that  they  will  not  condition  as 
quickly.  The  birds  should  not  be  penned  up  in  order  to 
fatten  them  or  get  them  in  good  condition  of  flesh.  This 
is  a  mistake,  as  they  will  not  eat  well  or  do  well  when 
confined  for  any  length  of  time.  In  preparing  turkeys 

33 


TURKEY  RAISING 

for  the  show  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  are  very 
loose-feathered  birds  and  that  it  is  very  easy  to  pull  out 
feathers.  For  this  reason  they  should  be  handled  as  little 
as  possible  when  getting  them  in  condition. 

It  is  very  desirable  to  coop  the  birds  to  some  extent 
before  they  are  sent  to  the  show.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  cooping  them  for  several  hours  each  day  in 
coops  of  the  same  size  as  will  be  found  in  the  show  for  a 
week  or  two  before  the  show.  It  is  best  not  to  put  them  in 
the  coops  and  keep  them  there  continuously  for  any  great 
length  of  time  as  they  are  almost  sure  to  go  off  feed  and 
go  down  in  condition  with  such  treatment.  The  coop  in 
which  they  are  confined  for  training  should  have  a  solid 
top  or  should  have  some  covering  laid  over  its  top.  If 
the  top  is  of  wire  the  birds  will  constantly  jump  up  in  an 
effort  to  get  out  and  will  worry  and  work  until  they  injure 
their  feathers.  Where  the  top  is  covered  or  solid  they 
will  not  make  this  effort  and  will  more  quickly  become 
used  to  being  cooped.  About  the  only  other  treatment 
which  the  birds  require  is  to  see  that  their  legs,  feet  and 
head  are  in  a  good  clean  condition.  To  accomplish  this 
it  is  best  to  have  one  person  hold  the  bird  while  another 
washes  these  parts.  In  the  case  of  dark-legged  birds  such 
as  Bronze  turkeys,  the  leg  color  can  be  helped  by  rubbing 
with  sweet  oil  or  some  similar  substance.  Vaseline  can 
be  used  in  place  of  the  oil,  but  in  this  case  it  is  particularly 
important  that  it  be  well  rubbed  in  with  a  cloth  so  that  it 
does  not  leave  the  legs  sticky  and  in  condition  to  gather 
the  dirt.  Scaly  leg  rarely  occurs  in  turkeys,  in  fact  prac- 

34 


FIG.   15.     Bourbon  Red  turkey,  male.     (Photograph  from  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.} 


FIG.  16.  Defective  feathers  from  a  Bourbon  Red  turkey  show- 
ing black  edging  at  the  tips  and  also  dark  markings  or  pencilings 
across  the  feathers.  (Photograph  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

tically  never,  unless  they  are  hatched  and  raised  with 
chicken  hens  or  are  allowed  to  roost  with  other  poultry. 

Catching  and  Handling  Turkeys 

With  wild  turkeys  or  with  wild  specimens  of  the 
domesticated  varieties,  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  way 
to  catch  them  is  to  use  a  net  constructed  of  stout  cord 
and  of  suitable  diameter,  so  that  it  can  be  cast  over  the 
birds.  Stand  so  that  the  bird  to  be  caught  has  to  pass 
between  you  and  the  side  of  the  building  or  a  fence. 
As  the  bird  runs  by  place  the  net  in  its  path  so  that  it 
will  run  into  the  net.  Let  the  net  give  before  the  advance 
of  the  bird  rather  than  try  to  pull  the  net  over  the  bird, 
as  the  latter  practice  is  more  likely  to  injure  its  feathers. 
When  the  turkey  is  in  the  net  it  cannot  struggle  to  any 
extent. 

The  left  hand  can  then  be  inserted  in  the  net,  worked 
along  the  turkey's  back  until  both  wings  can  be  grasped  at 
their  base  or  the  point  where  they  are  attached  to  the 
body.  The  right  hand  can  then  be  worked  under  the  bird 
until  it  grasps  both  legs  below  the  hocks.  The  left  arm 
can  then  be  thrown  over  the  bird's  wings  and  around  its 
body  in  such  a  way  as  to  support  the  bird  and  at  the  same 
time  hold  down  its  wings.  In  this  position  the  bird  can  be 
carried  under  the  left  arm,  the  head  facing  back  under  the 
arm,  the  right  hand  grasping  both  shanks.  In  carrying 
the  bird  keep  its  legs  straightened  out  as  this  will  render  it 
less  likely  to  struggle.  If  it  does  try  to  struggle  tilt  its 

35 


TURKEY  RAISING 

head  down.  In  grasping  the  turkey  about  the  base  of  the 
wings  it  is  necessary  to  be  very  careful,  as  a  rough  grasp 
here  is  likely  to  strip  off  the  feathers.  If  the  birds  are 
more  or  less  tame  they  can  often  be  worked  into  a  corner 
of  the  house  or  yard  and  caught  with  the  hands  grasping 
them  by  the  wings  close  to  the  body,  then  working  the 
left  arm  around  the  body  as  described  before. 

It  may  also  be  necessary  to  catch  turkeys  from  the  roost 
at  night  or  some  other  time.  In  doing  this  approach 
them  if  possible  from  behind  and  grasp  a  leg  with  each 
hand,  being  sure  that  the  hand  is  below  the  hock.  If  they 
are  grasped  above  the  hock  the  feathers  at  this  point  are 
very  apt  to  be  stripped  off.  As  soon  as  the  legs  are 
grasped  swing  the  turkey  clear  of  the  roost  so  that  when 
it  flaps  its  wings,  they  will  not  be  bruised  or  broken.  As 
soon  as  it  has  stopped  flapping  its  wings,  throw  the  left 
arm  around  the  body  and  over  the  wings  and  carry  as 
described  before.  Where  turkeys  are  intended  for  market 
they  are  sometimes  rendered  incapable  of  struggling 
either  by  locking  the  wings  over  the  back  or  by  tying  the 
legs  together.  Neither  of  these  practices  is  advised  as  it 
is  somewhat  cruel.  It  is  better  to  place  market  turkeys 
as  soon  as  they  are  caught  in  the  coops  in  which  they  are 
to  be  shipped. 

Shipping  Show  Birds  and  Breeding  Stock 

Ship  birds  which  are  intended  for  the  show  in  single 
coops.  If  two  birds  are  shipped  in  the  same  coop  and 

36 


~ 


be  ^ 

cx  c  a 


<u  o 


8 
1 

O 

-s: 


& 

J* 


c  ^ 

rt  -^ 

II 

O    Q 

J3  •*, 


- 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

without  partitions  they  will  not  arrive  in  as  good  con- 
dition as  if  shipped  single.  The  bird  should  have  plenty 
of  room  so  that  it  can  stand  erect  and  be  comfortable 
but  should  not  be  given  room  enough  so  that  it  can  turn 
around  in  the  coop.  For  a  good  sized  gobbler  a  coop 
30  inches  high  will  be  necessary.  Not  over  16  inches 
of  width  should  be  allowed  as  this  will  keep  the  bird 
from  turning  around.  If  the  coop  is  2  feet  wide  the 
bird  will  be  constantly  turning  and  will  injure  its  plum- 
age in  doing  so.  The  sides  of  the  shipping  coop  should 
be  solid.  If  the  sides  are  slatted  the  turkey  is  apt 
to  be  frightened  by  anything  which  passes  by.  The  top 
of  the  coop  should  be  slatted  in  order  to  provide  good 
ventilation,  but  additional  ventilation  in  the  sides  near  the 
top  is  desirable  in  order  to  allow  for  the  possibility  of 
something  being  piled  on  top  of  the  coop,  thus  shutting 
off  the  ventilation  from  that  source.  Coops  for  smaller 
gobblers  or  for  hen  turkeys  can  be  built  proportionately 
smaller  according  to  the  size  of  the  bird. 

In  shipping  breeding  stock  a  distance  of  not  over  200 
miles,  a  coop  2  feet  high  and  12  to  14  inches  wide  will  be 
large  enough  for  a  mature  gobbler.  If  they  are  to  be 
shipped  further  than  this  as  much  room  should  be  allowed 
as  would  be  given  where  the  birds  are  shipped  to  the 
show.  For  short  shipments  no  feed  or  water  should  be 
provided.  If  the  birds  are  to  be  over  two  days  on  the 
road,  however,  a  dish  for  water  must  be  fastened  to  the 
inside  of  the  coop  and  a  supply  of  feed  shipped  with  the 
coop  so  that  the  express  agent  can  feed  the  birds. 

37 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Packing  and  Shipping  Hatching  Eggs 

Eggs  for  hatching  may  be  shipped  long  distances  suc- 
cessfully. In  many  cases,  however,  the  shipment  seems  to 
affect  the  hatch,  probably  due  to  the  continual  jarring.  It 
is  advisable  to  -set  the  eggs  aside  and  allow  them  to  rest 
for  about  12  hours  after  their  receipt  and  before  they  are 
placed  under  a  hen  or  in  the  incubator  in  order  to  allow  the 
germ  to  regain  its  normal  position. 

Shipment  may  be  made  either  by  express  or  by  parcel 
post.  In  order  to  prevent  breakage  as  much  as  possible 
and  also  to  lessen  the  effects  of  the  jars  to  which  the  eggs 
are  subjected  they  must  be  carefully  packed.  A  common 
and  one  of  the  best  methods  of  packing  is  to  use  an  ordi- 
nary market  basket.  Line  the  basket  well  on  the  bottom 
and  sides  with  excelsior.  Next  wrap  each  egg  in  paper 
and  then  wrap  in  excelsior  or  place  a  good  thickness  of 
excelsior  between  the  eggs  when  they  are  packed  so  that 
they  cannot  come  in  contact  with  one  another.  Pack  the 
eggs  in  the  basket,  standing  them  on  the  small  end  and 
being  sure  that  they  are  tightly  packed  so  that  they  cannot 
move  or  shift  around.  Place  a  thick  covering  of  excelsior 
on  top  of  the  eggs,  using  enough  so  that  it  comes  above 
the  sides  of  the  basket,  and  sew  a  piece  of  strong  cotton 
cloth  over  the  top.  Instead  of  sewing,  the  cloth  can  be 
pushed  up  under  the  outside  rim  of  the  basket  with  a  case 
knife,  this  being  quicker  and  equally  as  effective  as  sew- 
ing. Where  a  larger  number  of  eggs  is  to  be  shipped, 

38 


°q 
^> 

•s 

I 

I 


3  -^ 

if 


11 


VARIETIES,  MATING  AND  SHOWING 

bushel  baskets  may  be  used,  the  method  of  packing  and 
covering  being  the  same  as  when  a  market  basket  is  used. 

Judging  Turkeys 

The  turkeys  should  be  cooped  separately  in  the  show. 
If  two  turkeys  are  cooped  together  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  get  them  to  stand  naturally  and  to  show 
off  to  as  good  advantage  as  they  will  if  cooped  by  them- 
selves. The  coops  should  be  large  enough  to  allow 
the  turkey  to  stand  erect  and  to  move  about  easily. 
Smaller  coops  render  it  impossible  to  judge  properly  as 
to  the  bird's  type  or  shape.  In  judging  the  birds  for  type, 
the  whole  class  should  be  gone  over  thoroughly  before  any 
of  the  birds  are  taken  out.  Once  they  have  been  caught, 
taken  out  of  the  coop  and  handled,  it  is  very  difficult  if  not 
impossible  to  get  them  to  stand  naturally  again  when  they 
are  put  back  as  they  are  frightened  by  the  treatment  which 
they  have  received.  In  catching  the  cooped  birds,  if  the 
door  of  the  coop  is  large  enough  to  allow  a  man  to  insert 
his  body,  the  best  way  to  catch  them  is  to  throw  the  left 
arm  over  the  body  so  as  to  hold  the  wings  down  and  pre- 
vent the  bird  from  struggling  while  the  right  hand  is  used 
to  grasp  both  legs  below  the  hock.  In  this  position  the 
bird  can  be  readily  drawn  out  of  the  coop  without  injury 
to  its  plumage. 

If  the  door  of  the  coop  is  smaller  it  may  be  necessary  to 
grasp  the  bird  by  the  wings  close  to  their  point  of  attach- 
ment to  the  body,  drawing  it  out  of  the  door  in  this  man- 

39 


TURKEY  RAISING 

ner,  or  in  some  cases  where  the  birds  are  especially  hard 
to  handle  it  may  be  necessary  to  grasp  them  by  the  shanks 
and  pull  them  out  in  this  way.  This  last  practice  should 
not  be  employed  if  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it  since  the  bird 
is  sure  to  struggle,  flap  its  wings  and  more  or  less  injury 
is  done  to  the  plumage  and  to  the  wings  in  dragging  the 
bird  through  the  door. 

If  the  judge  understands  thoroughly  how  to  catch  and 
handle  birds  it  will  be  better  for  him  to  insist  on  doing  all 
of  this  work  himself  rather  than  to  let  some  assistant  do  it 
who  does  not  know  how  so  well  and  who  might  do  the 
birds  damage.  After  the  birds  are  taken  out  of  the  coop 
they  should  be  carried  to  a  good  light  where  the  different 
sections  can  be  examined  for  perfection  of  color  and 
markings.  It  is  well  for  the  judge  to  have  an  assistant  or 
two  so  that  he  can  have  them  hold  one  bird  while  he  holds 
another  for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  Not  infre- 
quently broken  flights  will  be  found  in  turkeys.  Other 
things  being  equal  these  broken  flights  count  against  a 
bird  considerably  but  they  are  not  such  a  serious  defect 
as  to  prevent  a  superior  bird  from  winning  over  an  in- 
ferior one.  A  missing  flight  feather  or  a  missing  main 
tail  feather  is  a  much  more  serious  defect  than  is  a  broken 
flight. 


CHAPTER  III 

Management  of  the  Breeding  Stock 

Making  a  Start. — What  is  the  best  way  to  make  a  start 
in  turkey  raising,  by  the  purchase  of  breeding  stock  or  of 
eggs  for  hatching?  As  a  rule,  it  will  be  found  best  to 
purchase  breeding  stock.  Such  a  purchase  will  involve  a 
greater  outlay  of  capital  but  will  allow  one  to  begin  opera- 
tions in  earnest  as  soon  as  the  laying  season  begins.  The 
purchase  of  breeding  stock  will  also  make  it  possible  to 
gain  a  better  idea  of  the  quality  of  the  stock  and  -what  may 
be  expected  of  the  young  stock  raised.  If  one  does  not 
wish  to  put  as  much  money  into  the  turkeys  at  the  start, 
they  can  purchase  eggs  for  hatching  and  hatch  and  rear 
them  under  an  ordinary  chicken  hen.  Where  this  is  done, 
however,  it  will  be  a  year  before  one  can  begin  breeding 
turkeys.  For  the  person  who  has  had  little  or  no  experi- 
ence in  turkey  raising,  one  torn  and  from  three  to  five  hens 
will  be  enough  to  begin  with  and  many  persons  will  prefer 
to  start  with  a  trio,  that  is  a  torn  and  two  hens.  With 
good  success  from  7  to  10  turkeys  should  be  raised  from 
each  hen.  In  buying  breeding  stock  for  a  start  it  is  better 
to  purchase  a  torn  which  is  unrelated  to  the  hens. 

41 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock 

The  main  considerations  in  selecting  stock  for  breed- 
ing purposes  are  vigor,  size,  shape  of  body,  strength 
of  bone,  early  maturity  and  in  the  case  of  stock  for 
exhibition,  color  of  plumage.  It  is  always  desirable 
for  the  farmer  or  other  turkey  raiser  to  select  pure 
bred  stock  rather  than  to  keep  ordinary  or  mongrel  tur- 
keys. Not  only  will  the  pure  bred  stock  possess  greater 
uniformity  and  therefore  better  market  quality,  but  be- 
cause they  have  been  systematically  bred  for  the  purpose 
of  producing  suitable  carcasses,  they  will  be  found  to 
possess  better  fattening  qualities  as  well.  It  is  also  true 
that  the  pure  bred  flocks  when  given  good  care  so  that 
they  have  a  chance  to  reach  their  full  size  will  develop 
into  much  larger  birds  than  will  the  average  flock  of 
mongrels.  Another  consideration  which  should  carry 
weight  with  the  turkey  raiser  is  the  fact  that  there  is 
always  a  brisk  demand  for  breeding  stock  from  pure  bred 
flocks  both  in  the  way  of  turkey  hens  for  breeding,  good 
vigorous  toms  for  the  same  purpose,  and  eggs  for  hatch- 
ing. Such  a  sale  adds  very  materially  to  the  income  which 
the  turkey  raiser  can  secure  from  his  flock  of  turkeys. 

If  the  farmer  or  turkey  raiser  already  has  a  flock  of 
hens  which  may  be  crossbred  or  mongrel  and  if  he  does 
not  feel  that  he  can  go  to  the  expense  of  replacing  these 
hens  with  pure  bred  individuals,  he  can  secure  a  rapid  im- 
provement in  his  flock,  in  fact  can  grade  them  up  to  the 
point  where  for  all  practical  purposes  they  are  pure  bred, 

42 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

by  the  use  in  successive  generations  of  a  pure  bred  male, 
being  careful  to  use  each  year  a  male  of  the  same  variety. 
In  too  many  cases  turkey  raisers,  in  securing  new 
blood,  buy  a  turkey  torn  for  breeding  purposes  wherever 
they  can  secure  him  and  quite  regardless  of  his  variety  or 
even  whether  he  is  pure  bred.  The  result  of  this  practice 
can  only  lead  to  a  crossing  and  mixing  up  of  the  blood  to 
such  an  extent  that  in  a  short  time  the  flock  becomes  one 
of  mongrels.  Most  turkey  raisers  recognize  the  fact  that 
it  is  really  poor  policy  to  mongrelize  their  flock  in  this 
way,  but  the  turkey  flock  is  a  small  side-line  on  most 
farms  and  many  owners  do  not  take  the  trouble  or  pains 
to  keep  their  flocks  pure. 

Should  Turkeys  be  Inbred? 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  unwise  to 
inbreed  turkeys,  particularly  to  continue  to  inbreed  them 
over  any  period  of  time.  It  is  possible  to  use  the  same 
male  for  two  successive  years  without  inbreeding  to  a 
dangerous  extent,  but  it  is  most  desirable  to  secure  from 
time  to  time  absolutely  unrelated  .blood  if  possible. 
Where  the  breeding  stock  is  yarded  and  more  than  two 
matings  are  made  it  is  possible  to  use  a  torn  for  two 
years  or  more  without  inbreeding  by  mating  him  with 
the  same  hens  with  which  he  was  originally  mated  ex- 
cluding his  daughters  from  the  pen.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  continued  inbreeding  will  lead  to  a  loss  of  vigor 
and  to  a  consequent  deterioration  in  the  flock.  Instances 

43 


TURKEY  RAISING 

are  by  no  means  rare,  however,  where  inbreeding  has 
been  carried  on  with  success  over  quite  a  period  of  time. 
It  is  probable  that  the  same  condition  holds  true  here  as 
with  chickens  or  with  other  classes  of  live  stock,  namely, 
that  while  most  strains  or  families  seem  to  show  evil  re- 
sults from  continued  inbreeding,  occasional  strains  will 
be  found  which  seem  to  be  able  to  stand  up  well  under 
inbreeding  and  do  not  show  any  apparent  deterioration. 

Where  the  turkey  grower  has  stock  of  exceptional 
quality  and  is  interested  in  maintaining  this  quality  he 
will  hesitate  to  purchase  a  torn  of  unrelated  blood  for  fear 
that  the  two  bloods  will  not  nick  well  and  the  quality  may 
be  destroyed.  In  this  case  it  is  usual  to  line  breed,  or  in 
other  words,  to  use  breeders  of  the  same  family  or  strain 
but  not  closely  related.  The  turkey  grower  who  is  line 
breeding  usually  purchases  new  breeding  toms  from  the 
same  source  where  he  secured  his  foundation  stock.  Noth- 
ing is  to  be  gained  by  crossing.  The  increased  vigor 
which  may  result  from  such  a  practice  can  be  obtained  just 
as  well  by  using  a  male  or  unrelated  blood  of  the  same 
variety. 

Age  of  Breeding  Stock 

In  selecting  the  breeders,  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
age  of  the  stock.  While  early  hatched,  well  matured 
pullets  can  safely  be  bred,  it  is  true  that  yearling  hens 
produce  eggs  which  are  on  the  average  larger  and  more 
uniform  in  size  and  it  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion 

44 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

that  the  poults  hatched  from  such  eggs  are  somewhat 
superior  to  those  hatched  from  eggs  laid  by  pullets. 
Early  hatched  pullets  will  as  a  rule  start  laying  earlier 
in  the  spring  and  will  lay  more  eggs  than  yearling  or 
older  hens.  Late  hatched  pullets  should  never  be  saved 
for  breeders.  Not  only  do  they  fail  to  attain  as  good  size 
as  the  earlier  hatched  birds  but  the  stock  produced  from 
them  is  not  as  satisfactory.  As  in  the  case  of  early  hatched 
pullets,  so  early  hatched  well  matured  cockerels  or  young 
toms  can  be  used  for  breeding  if  they  show  that  they  are 
good  vigorous  individuals. 

Late  hatched  toms,  that  is  July  or  August  hatched, 
while  they  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  the  first  year 
will  often  make  good  breeders  the  second  year  and  can  be 
retained  if  desired  for  that  purpose.  These  late  hatched 
toms  seldom  if  ever  attain  as  good  a  size  as  early  hatched 
males.  While  some  breeders  claim  that  they  get  no  bad 
results  from  breeding  together  well  matured  cockerels 
and  well  matured  pullets,  most  breeders  prefer  to  mate 
pullets  with  yearling  or  two-year-old  toms  and  to  mate 
cockerels  with  yearling  or  older  hens.  In  no  case  should 
slow  growing  birds  of  either  sex  be  saved  for  breeders. 
A  plan  which  is  often  followed  by  turkey  breeders  and 
which  works  out  to  good  advantage  is  to  use  about  half 
yearling  hens  and  half  early  hatched  pullets.  Old  hens 
are  not  apt  to  be  as  satisfactory  breeders  as  well  matured 
pullets  or  yearling  hens.  As  a  rule  these  older  birds 
are  inclined  to  be  too  fat  and  for  this  reason  to  lay 
fewer  eggs,  eggs  which  are  less  fertile  and  a  consider- 

45 


TURKEY  RAISING 

able  number  of  soft-shelled  eggs.  The  large  hens  when 
used  for  sitting  purposes  are  also  likely  to  break  more 
eggs.  While  it  is  a  general  practice  and  good  practice 
not  to  retain  many  hens  beyond  their  second  year  for 
breeders,  if  the  turkey  grower  possesses  an  especially 
valuable  hen  from  a  breeding  point  of  view  or  one  which 
makes  an  exceptionally  good  mother,  she  should  be  re- 
tained as  a  breeder  just  so  long  as  she  is  in  good  breeding 
condition. 

Older  turkeys,  both  males  and  females,  tend  to  be  less 
fertile  than  younger  birds,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  are  fatter  and  heavier  and  less  active.  Hens  are  not 
ordinarily  profitable  after  they  are  four  years  old.  Year- 
ling toms  are  as  a  rule  more  clumsy  than  cockerels,  owing 
to  their  greater  weight  and  this  of  course  is  still  more 
true  of  two-year-old  or  older  toms.  For  this  reason  they 
are  not  quite  as  satisfactory  breeders  as  well  matured 
cockerels.  It  is  usually  possible  to  distinguish  between 
young  turkeys  and  those  which  are  yearlings  or  older  by 
means  of  the  wing  feathering.  In  all  varieties  the  two 
outer  primary  feathers  are  carried  as  chick  feathers 
until  the  birds  moult  as  yearlings.  These  chick  feathers 
are  pointed  at  the  end  and  are  easily  distinguished  from 
the  mature  feathers  which  are  rounded. 

The  second  way  to  tell  the  age  is  by  the  wing  bar  which 
does  not  mature  until  the  second  year.  In  the  mature 
female  the  wing  bar  is  about  as  wide  as  three  fingers  and 
the  feathers  which  form  it  grow  out  to  an  even  length, 
causing  its  lower  edge  to  be  regular  in  outline.  In  the 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

pullet  the  wing  bar  is  not  more  than  two  fingers  wide  and 
the  feathers  do  not  grow  out  to  an  even  length  so  as  to 
form  a  regular  outline  to  its  lower  edge.  In  the  mature 
gobblers  the  wing  bar  shows  a  width  of  about  four 
fingers  and  has  an  even  outline  while  in  the  young  gobbler 
the  wing  bar  is  not  over  three  fingers  wide  and  has  an 
uneven  outline.  See  Figs.  7,  10  and  17. 

Prevent  Injury  to  Hens  in  Breeding 

Where  yearling  or  older  toms  are  used  they  are  very 
likely  to  injure  the  hens  in  mating  because  of  their  weight 
and  their  sharp  spurs  and  toe  nails.  When  they  are  used, 
therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  off  the  spurs  and  clip  or  file 
down  the  toe  nails  short  and  blunt.  Some  breeders  protect 
their  hens  from  injury  during  the  breeding  season  by  fas- 
tening a  cloth  covering  or  sort  of  apron  over  their  backs. 
Injury  to  the  hens  during  the  breeding  is  more  likely  to  oc- 
cur where  the  hens  are  very  fat  as  the  skin  of  their  backs 
rips  more  easily  in  this  condition  or  when  the  torn  is  very 
much  heavier  than  the  hens.  Care  should  be  used  to  see 
that  there  is  a  definite  relation  between  the  size  of  the  hens 
and  the  torn  used.  For  instance,  if  it  becomes  necessary 
or  desirable  to  use  a  torn  weighing  35  to  45  pounds,  no 
hen  should  be  mated  with  him  which  weighs  less  than  25 
pounds.  The  use  of  light  weight  small  females  with  heavy 
toms  is  very  likely  to  result  in  breaking  them  down.  With 
the  wild  turkeys  it  is  best  to  use  toms  which  do  not  run 
more  than  2  or  3  pounds  heavier  than  the  hens  used.  One 

47 


TURKEY  RAISING 

8  or  10  pounds  heavier  is  sure  to  injure  the  hens  in  some 
cases  so  severely  that  they  will  die.  When  the  skin  of  a 
hen's  back  is  severely  torn  it  may  sometimes  be  desirable 
to  sew  up  the  tears,  rubbing  carbolated  vaseline  on  the 
wound  after  the  sewing  is  completed. 

Selecting  and  Purchasing  Breeders 

The  best  time  to  select  the  breeders  is  during  the  fall, 
before  the  turkeys  are  sent  to  the  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas  markets.  At  this  time  the  turkey  grower  can 
pick  out  from  his  young  stock  the  best  grown,  most  vig- 
orous females  to  save  as  breeders.  There  is  entirely  too 
great  a  tendency  for  turkey  raisers  to  be  tempted  by  the 
holiday  prices  to  send  their  best  grown,  largest  birds  to 
market,  with  the  result  that  after  the  Christmas  mar- 
keting, they  have  left  only  the  slow  growing,  small, 
scrubby  females  to  retain  as  breeders.  Such  a  practice 
must  of  course  result  in  a  deterioration  in  the  stock.  In 
case  turkey  hens  or  breeding  males  are  to  be  purchased, 
the  fall  is  the  best  time  to  do  this  as  there  will  be  a  larger 
number  of  birds  to  select  from  at  that  time.  It  is  also 
well  to  have  the  breeders  selected  early  and  placed  under 
the  conditions  where  they  will  be  bred  so  that  they  will 
become  thoroughly  used  to  their  environment  before 
the  breeding  season  commences. 

When  breeding  birds  are  purchased  they  should  be  iso- 
lated, when  received,  for  a  few  days,  in  order  to  make  sure 
that  they  are  thoroughly  healthy  before  they  are  allowed 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

to  run  with  the  flock.  At  this  time  it  is  also  well  to  ex- 
amine the  purchased  turkeys  carefully  to  see  that  they  are 
free  from  lice,  and  if  any  indication  of  lice  is  found  they 
should  be  thoroughly  treated  as  described  on  page  125. 
In  buying  turkeys  for  new  blood  it  is  better  to  purchase  a 
gobbler  rather  than  to  buy  hens.  The  purchase  of  a  male 
makes  it  possible  to  inject  the  new  blood  more  widely  in 
the  flock  by  means  of  a  single  individual.  Moreover, 
there  will  not  be  much  difficulty  experienced  from  a 
strange  gobbler  straying  away  as  he  will  stay  with  the 
hens.  If  strange  hens  are  purchased  they  are  much  more 
likely  to  wander  away  than  are  the  turkey  raiser's  own 
hens.  Very  frequently  turkeys  are  bought  at  a  certain 
guaranteed  weight.  In  this  connection  it  must  be  remem- 
bered either  in  buying  or  selling  that  the  shipment  is  hard 
on  turkeys  and  they  will  often  lose  as  much  as  2  or  3 
pounds  while  en  route.  A  common  practice  in  selling  tur- 
keys for  breeding  purposes  is  to  send  sample  feathers 
from  the  bird  so  that  the  prospective  purchaser  can  form 
a  good  estimate  as  to  the  general  excellence  of  the  bird  in 
question. 

Number  of  Hens  to  a  Male. 

In  the  wild  variety  it  is  not  desirable  to  mate  more 
than  eight  hens  with  one  male.  In  the  domesticated 
varieties  a  good  vigorous  young  torn  can  be  safely  mated 
to  as  high  as  15  hens.  If  a  flock  of  25  or  30  hens 
is  to  be  kept,  two  toms  should  be  used.  The  best  prac- 
tice is  to  allow  one  torn  to  run  with  the  hens  one  day 

49 


TURKEY  RAISING 

and  the  other  the  following  day.  If  the  two  toms  are 
allowed  to  run  with  the  flock  at  the  same  time  they  will 
fight  frequently  and  seriously  and  may  injure  each  other 
so  that  they  will  not  be  in  the  most  vigorous  breeding 
condition  or  may  even  be  killed.  In  addition  to  that, 
the  stronger  torn  intimidates  the  weaker  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  stronger  does  practically  all  of  the  mating.  The 
presence  of  the  weaker  torn  then  serves  only  as  a  detri- 
ment to  the  mating  for  he  is  not  allowed  to  mate  with  any 
of  the  hens  and  he  attempts  to  interfere  with  the  stronger 
torn  when  mating. 

A  torn  which  struts  about  and  spreads  his  tail  fre- 
quently is  usually  in  good  health  while  one  which  mopes 
around  with  his  tail  down  is  not.  A  glossy  clean  condition 
of  the  plumage  is  also  an  indication  of  good  health. 
Where  a  flock  of  40  or  50  hens  is  kept,  three  toms  can  be 
used,  alternating  them  each  day  or  perhaps  what  is  better 
practice,  each  half  day.  Whatever  may  be  the  number  of 
gobblers  necessary  in  order  to  insure  fertility  from  the" 
flock  of  hens  kept,  it  is  well  to  select  and  hold  over  an 
extra  gobbler.  This  will  insure  against  loss  of  time  in 
case  anything  happens  to  one  of  the  breeding  males  as  it 
may  be  difficult  to  secure  the  kind  of  male  desired  on 
short  notice  during  the  breeding  season. 

Breeding  Yards 

As  turkeys  are  usually  kept  with  only  a  few  hens  in 
a  flock,  it  is  common  practice  to  allow  the  breeders  free 

50 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

range.  This  is  a  very  desirable  practice  if  the  danger 
of  loss  of  the  eggs  is  not  too  great  and  if  the  number  of 
hens  involved  is  not  so  many  as  to  make  the  work  of 
looking  after  them  in  the  nests  which  they  steal  too 
burdensome.  Where  a  larger  number  of  hens  is  kept 
it  is  best  to  provide  a  roomy  enclosed  pen  or  breeding 
yard,  and  many  raisers  prefer  to  do  this  even  with  a 
smaller  number  of  hens  on  account  of  the  time  saved  in 
looking  after  the  turkeys,  the  ease  of  locating  the  nests 
and  the  fact  that  all  eggs  laid  are  thus  secured. 

Sometimes  the  breeding  pens  are  comparatively  small 
in  area,  but  it  is  best  to  allow  an  acre  or  two  of  ground 
for  this  purpose  even  if  no  more  than  20  or  30  hens  are 
kept.  When  a  small  breeding  pen  or  yard  is  utilized  the 
practice  should  be  to  keep  them  shut  up  during  the  morn- 
ing and  about  half  of  the  afternoon.  By  that  time  prac- 
tically all  of  the  eggs  will  have  been  laid  and  the  turkeys 
can  then  be  turned  out  of  the  pen  and  allowed  to  roam  at 
will  during  the  rest  of  the  day  and  to  roost  out  where 
they  wish  at  night.  Even  when  large  breeding  yards  are 
used  this  is  good  practice.  Early  in  the  morning  they 
should  be  driven  back  into  the  pen,  which  will  be  found  to 
be  easy  of  accomplishment  if  the  birds  are  fed  in  the  en- 
closure regularly  each  morning.  An  orchard  makes  a 
very  desirable  breeding  enclosure  for  the  turkey  hens. 
Such  a  place  enclosed  with  a  hog-tight  wire  fence  3  feet 
high  will  usually  serve  to  hold  the  turkeys  especially  if  no 
board  or  rail  is  used  at  the  top  of  the  fence.  Where  such 
a  rail  or  a  wooden  fence  is  used  the  turkeys  see  a  place  to 

51 


TURKEY  RAISING 

alight  and  this  leads  them  to  fly  upon  the  fence  and  then 
over.  With  the  wire  fence  they  see  no  such  handy  alight- 
ing place  and  will  not  as  a  rule  attempt  to  fly  over.  For 
the  same  reason  steel  posts  in  the  fence  offer  less  of  an 
alighting  place  than  wooden  posts,  and  if  the  latter  are 
used,  the  tops  should  be  sharpened  to  a  point. 

If  any  difficulty  is  experienced  in  the  hens  flying  out  of 
the  enclosure  provided  for  them,  this  can  usually  be 
checked  by  clipping  the  flight  feathers  of  one  wing.  It  is 
not  as  a  rule  necessary  to  clip  the  wing  of  a  torn  except  in 
the  case  of  wild  birds  for  he  will  not  leave  the  hens.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  clipping  the  wings  of  hens  ren- 
ders them  somewhat  helpless  against  the  attacks  of  dogs 
or  foxes  and  will  also  make  it  necessary  to  provide  easy 
means  for  them  to  get  up  on  the  roosts  high  enough  to  be 
out  of  reach  of  foxes  or  coyotes.  Clipping  the  wings  of 
hens  also  injures  their  usefulness  to  some  extent  for 
brooding  as  they  cannot  hover  as  many  poults  to  as  good 
advantage.  Occasionally,  also,  clipping  the  flight  feathers 
may  render  a  bird  unfit  for  showing  since  the  wing  may 
not  grow  out  in  time  for  the  show.  Turkeys  can  be  pre- 
vented from  flying  by  tying  a  piece  of  light  board  across 
the  back  over  the  wings.  Such  boards  are  called  paddles, 
or  shingles.  The  paddle  should  be  about  4  inches  wide 
and  may  be  from  8  to  15  inches  long.  Two  holes  bored 
over  the  base  of  each  wing  allow  a  strip  of  soft  cloth  or  a 
soft  string  to  be  passed  through  there  and  around  the  wing 
at  the  base,  thus  securing  the  paddle  in  place.  This  must 
not  be  tied  so  tightly  as  to  cut  off  the  circulation.  When 

52 


FIG.  21.  Showing  how  the  shingle  or  paddle  is  attached  to  a 
turkey  to  prevent  it  from  flying.  (Photograph  from  the  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.} 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

the  paddle  is  thus  tied  in  place  across  the  shoulders  the 
bird  is  prevented  from  raising  and  spreading  its  wings 
and  cannot  fly. 

Where  hens  have  stolen  a  nest  and  started  to  lay  be- 
fore they  have  been  shut  up  in  the  enclosure  they  will 
make  every  effort  for  a  few  days  to  get  out  in  order  to 
continue  laying  in  the  nest  which  they  have  selected  for 
themselves.  In  this  case  the  eggs  should  be  removed  from 
the  nest  which  they  have  stolen  and  their  wings  should 
be  clipped  or  they  should  be  paddled  so  as  to  prevent 
their  flying  over  the  fence.  As  a  rule  they  will  begin  lay- 
ing in  a  few  days  in  one  of  the  nests  provided  in  the  en- 
closure. 

Where  wild  turkeys  are  kept  it  is  necessary  to  clip  the 
flight  feathers  of  one  wing  in  order  to  keep  the  birds 
from  flying  over  the  fence.  Even  with  one  wing  clipped, 
a  higher  fence  is  necessary  than  is  the  case  with  the  do- 
mesticated varieties  and  it  is  best  to  use  a  fence  8  or 
preferably  10  feet  high.  It  is  better  to  clip  one  wing  only 
rather  than  to  clip  both  wings,  as  this  tends  to  unbalance 
the  bird  more  when  it  tries  to  fly  or  climb.  With  both 
wings  clipped  the  birds  are  able  to  climb  over  quite  a  high 
fence.  In  this  connection,  it  should  be  stated  that  the 
wing  of  the  wild  turkey  torn  should  never  be  clipped  until 
after  the  breeding  season  is  over.  To  do  so  makes  it 
difficult  for  the  birds  to  balance  when  treading  the  hens 
and  therefore  interferes  with  the  breeding.  On  this  ac- 
count it  may  be  necessary  until  after  the  breeding  season 
is  over,  to  keep  the  wild  turkeys  in  a  run  covered  ovef 

53 


TURKEY  RAISING 

the  top  with  wire  netting  to  prevent  the  torn  from  escap- 
ing. It  is  unnecessary  to  clip  the  wing  of  domesticated 
gobblers  for  they  will  stay  with  the  hens. 

Feeding  the  Breeding  Stock 

To  be  in  good  breeding  condition  the  birds  should  come 
through  the  winter  in  good  condition  of  flesh  but  not 
fat.  If  they  are  fed  too  much  corn  throughout  the  winter 
there  is  quite  a  likelihood  of  their  being  too  fat  when 
the  breeding  season  opens.  Where  the  birds  have  free 
range  they  are  able  to  get  for  themselves  a  varied  sup- 
ply of  feed  including  grass,  tender  shoots,  young  leaves, 
insects  and  nuts  and  seeds  of  various  kinds.  This  is 
particularly  true  during  the  breeding  season  in  the  South, 
and  where  an  abundance  of  this  kind  of  natural  food  is 
available  one  good  feed  daily  of  grain  such  as  oats  or 
wheat  will  suffice  to  keep  the  birds  in  good  breeding 
condition. 

In  the  North  where  the  winters  are  more  severe  turkey 
raisers  generally  feed  the  birds  twice  a  day.  A  good 
feed  for  this  purpose  is  one  consisting  of  equal  parts  of 
oats,  wheat  and  corn  together  with  some  vegetables  such 
as  beets,  cabbages,  turnips,  potatoes,  clover  or  alfalfa  for 
a  green  feed.  Another  good  feed  for  breeding  turkeys 
consists  of  3  or  4  parts  of  oats  to  i  part  of  corn.  Some 
turkey  raisers  also  like  to  leave  bran  where  the  turkeys 
can  help  themselves  at  any  time.  Buckwheat  is  relished 
by  turkeys  when  they  are  used  to  it,  but  should  not  be 
used  exclusively  as  a  grain  feed.  Some  animal  feed  dur- 

54 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

ing  the  winter  is  also  necessary  if  the  birds  are  to  be  kept 
in  the  best  condition,  as  this  takes  the  place  of  the  insects 
which  they  are  able  to  secure  at  other  seasons.  Ordinary 
commercial  beef  scrap  such  as  is  fed  to  hens,  or  beef  livers 
or  lungs  or  skim  milk,  either  sweet  or  sour,  is  suitable  for 
this  purpose. 

Often  a  good  laying  mash  such  as  is  used  for  laying 
hens  can  be  fed  to  the  breeding  flock  just  previous  to  the 
breeding  season  in  order  to  start  them  laying.  Unless 
turkeys  are  used  to  eating  a  mash,  however,  it  may  be 
some  little  time  before  they  will  eat  it  readily.  Where 
the  breeding  stock  is  confined  to  a  breeding  pen  it  is  well 
to  sow  some  green  crop  such  as  grass,  oats,  rye,  wheat, 
barley,  clover  or  alfalfa.  It  is  not  desirable  to  feed  the 
breeding  stock  on  corn  alone  for  a  grain.  Wheat  and 
oats  are  the  best  grains  for  the  purpose.  The  laying  hens 
should  also  have  access  during  the  breeding  season  to 
grit  and  charcoal  and  also  to  oyster  shells  for  the  pur- 
pose of  furnishing  shell-forming  material. 

It  is  especially  necessary  to  supply  grit  when  the  soil 
does  not  contain  much  gravel.  Charcoal  is  an  excellent 
aid  in  keeping  the  birds  in  good  condition  as  it  is  a  good 
corrective  for  digestive  troubles.  Unless  the  birds  have 
access  to  a  stream  of  water,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  fresh 
water  daily  in  a  pan,  pail  or  other  receptacle  which  can  be 
kept  clean.  Stagnant  water  is  bad  for  turkeys,  and  they 
prefer  to  drink  from  a  stream.  Such  a  stream  is  there- 
fore a  valuable  asset  on  a  farm  where  turkeys  are 
raised. 

55 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Winter  Shelter  for  the  Breeders 

Many  turkey  raisers  provide  no  shelter  whatever  for 
their  breeding  stock  even  during  the  winter,  allowing 
the  birds  to  roost  in  trees  or  upon  roosts  especially  pre- 
pared for  them.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  more 
southern  localities.  In  the  North  where  the  winters  are 
severe  some  form  of  shelter  should  be  available  as  a 
protection  to  the  birds.  This  may  not  be  used  during 
most  of  the  winter  but  should  be  available  so  that  the 
birds  can  be  driven  into  it  during  severe  stormy  weather 
especially  during  sleet  or  ice  storms. 

Turkeys  can  stand  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  hens, 
but  like  them  they  are  more  susceptible  to  a  damp  cold 
than  to  a  dry  cold.  During  severe  sleet  storms  the  tur- 
keys roosting  in  the  open  sometimes  have  such  a  coat  of 
ice  frozen  on  them  and  become  so  stiffened  that  they  may 
be  blown  from  their  roosts  and  injured  in  their  fall  to  the 
ground.  Any  shed  or  barn  can  be  utilized  as  a  shelter  for 
turkeys  during  storms.  Where  turkey  houses  or  sheds 
are  provided  they  usually  take  the  form  of  a  shed  with 
most  or  all  of  the  south  front  open.  Such  sheds  may  be 
used  to  shelter  the  breeding  stock  during  all  of  the  winter 
season,  but  as  soon  as  the  weather  moderates  in  the  spring 
the  birds  should  be  turned  out  of  the  house  and  made  to 
roost  outside.  This  they  will  readily  do  and  will  keep  in 
better  health  as  a  result. 

Where  turkey  houses  are  used  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  interior  of  the  house  very  clean,  removing  the  drop- 

56 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

pings  regularly,  and  to  provide  plenty  of  litter  if  the 
health  of  the  stock  is  to  be  maintained.  Where  only  a 
few  turkeys  are  kept  they  are  sometimes  allowed  to  roost 
in  the  chicken  house  with  the  chickens.  It  is  best,  how- 
ever, not  to  allow  turkeys  to  roost  with  fowls  as  they  will '! 
do  better  when  they  are  kept  separate. 

A  satisfactory  turkey  house,  built  especially  for  that 
purpose,  is  one  30  feet  long  and  16  feet  deep.  The  front 
wall  is  9  feet  high  and  the  rear  wall  6  feet,  the  roof  being 
of  the  single  slope  or  shed  roof  type.  The  foundation  is 
concrete  and  the  floor  is  board.  The  walls  are  a  single 
thickness  and  may  be  either  of  matched  boards,  of  barn 
boards  with  the  cracks  battened  or  of  barn  boards  covered 
with  paper.  The  house  is  tight  on  all  sides  except  the 
front,  where  there  is  an  opening  3  feet  wide  extending 
clear  across  the  house.  This  opening  is  placed  4  feet 
from  the  floor  and  2  feet  from  the  roof.  It  is, 
of  course,  covered  with  wire  netting.  A  wide  door  is 
provided  in  the  middle  of  the  front.  A  dropping  board 
runs  along  the  rear  of  the  house  3  feet  from  the  floor  and 
roosts  are  j  laced  above  this.  The  floor  is  covered  with 
a  thick  layer  of  straw  which  is  changed  weekly.  During 
the  cold  or  stormy  weather  the  turkeys  are  driven  into 
this  house  each  night  and  if  the  weather  is  particularly 
bad  they  can  be  kept  there  for  a  day  or  two,  feeding  them 
inside.  Ordinarily,  the  turkeys  are  fed  outside  the  house. 
A  house  of  this  size  will  accommodate  60  turkeys  very 
nicely  and  more  can  be  kept  in  it  for  limited  periods. 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Breeding  and  Laying  Season 

The  breeding  season  for  turkeys  usually  begins  in  the 
South  in  the  early  part  of  February  and  in  the  North 
nearly  a  month  later.  Laying  usually  begins  in  a  week 
or  ten  days  after  the  turkey  hen  has  mated  for  the  first 
time.  A  single  mating  suffices  to  fertilize  all  of  the  eggs 
in  a  litter  but  usually  the  hen  mates  several  times  before 
she  begins  to  lay.  The  greater  proportion  of  the  .mat- 
ings  occurs  either  early  in  the  day,  soon  after  the  birds 
have  come  down  from  the  roosts,  or  later  in  the  day,  not 
long  before  they  go  to  roost  again. 

The  number  of  eggs  which  a  turkey  hen  lays  will  de- 
pend upon  several  things :  First  of  all  upon  her  age;  sec- 
ondly, upon  whether  it  is  a  first,  second,  or  third  litter, 
and,  thirdly,  upon  the  individuality  of  the  hen  herself.  The 
hens  do  not  all  begin  laying,  of  course,  at  the  same  time 
and  variation  in  this  respect  may  be  as  great  as  six  weeks 
or  two  months  from  the  time  the  first  hen  begins  to  lay 
until  the  last  starts.  Pullets,  as  a  rule,  begin  laying 
slightly  earlier  than  do  yearling  or  older  hens.  The  aver- 
age number  of  eggs  in  the  first  litter  is  about  18  but  in- 
dividual hens  may  lay  anywhere  from  12  to  30  eggs. 
The  number  of  eggs  laid  in  the  second  litter  is  smaller, 
being  about  12,  while  in  the  third  litter  the  average  num- 
ber will  not  be  much  over  10. 

The  following  table  gives  the  individual  records  of  lay- 
ing of  a  number  of  females  which  were  kept  under  close 
observation.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the  num- 

58 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

her  of  yearling  hens,  which  is  two,  is  too  small  to  attach 
any  great  significance  to  their  average.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  three  November-hatched  pullets.  It  is  a 
matter  of  interest  that  these  November-hatched  pullets 
began  laying  May  i,  2  and  5. 

Spring  Hatched  Pullets 
ist  litter       2nd  litter       3rd  litter      Total 

17 
32 

ii  35 

9  39 

—  25 

19 
i? 
30 
i? 
33 
25 
29 

35 
10 

November-Hatched  Pullets 

ist  litter       2nd  litter      3rd  litter  Total 

No.  18 .      17  17 

"    19 12  12 

"20 17  17 

Average 15  1/3          —                 —  — 

59 


No.  I  

17 

— 

"   2  

18 

H 

"  3  

14 

10 

"  4  

20 

10 

"  5  

25 

— 

"  7  

19 

— 

"  8  

17 

— 

"  9  

18 

12 

"  10  

17 



"  12  

22 

II 

"  14  

16 

9 

°  15  

16 

13 

"  16  

18 

17 

Average  

183/13 

12 

TURKEY  RAISING 

Yearling  Hens 

ist  litter       2nd  litter       3rd  litter       Total 
No.    6  .......     31  15  46 

"ii  .......     21  14  35 

Average  ......      26 


Some  turkey  hens,  especially  if  they  are  broken  up  and 
not  required  to  sit,  can  be  made  to  lay  as  many  as  four  or 
five  litters,  but  this  is  not  a  practice  to  be  recommended 
for  the  reason  that  poults  hatched  after  the  first  of  July 
do  not  have  time  to  develop  into  suitable  turkeys  for  the 
market  at  Thanksgiving  or  Christmas  and  will  not  be 
well  enough  grown  to  make  suitable  breeders  the  following 
spring.  Occasional  hens  lay  throughout  the  summer  with- 
out becoming  broody  and  may  lay  100  or  more  eggs. 
Most  of  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  morning,  although  occa- 
sional eggs  will  be  laid  in  the  afternoon. 

When  the  laying  first  begins  it  progresses  at  the  rate 
of  an  egg  every  other  day  until  two  or  three  eggs  have 
been  laid  when  the  rate  usually  quickens  to  an  egg  each 
day,  although  days  may  be  skipped  now  and  then  through 
the  laying,  particularly  on  the  day  before  laying  the  last 
egg  of  the  litter.  When  the  hen  first  begins  laying  she 
usually  leaves  the  nest  within  an  hour  or  two  after  the 
egg  has  been  laid.  As  the  laying  progresses,  however, 
she  stays  longer  and  longer  on  the  nest  after  laying  until 
she  is  really  sitting  by  the  time  the  last  egg  is  laid.  This 
is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  table  which  shows  the 
time  at  which  the  eggs  of  a  clutch  were  laid  by  a  turkey 

60 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

hen,  and  the  length  of  time  she  remained  on  the  nest  after 
she  had  laid. 

A  hen  that  begins  laying  in  the  middle  of  March  gen- 
erally finishes  her  first  litter  early  in  April,  and  when 
broken  up  will  finish  her  second  litter  late  in  April  and 
her  third  late  in  May,  although,  of  course,  this  depends  to 
a  large  extent  on  the  number  of  eggs  she  lays  in  each 
litter  and  upon  the  promptness  with  which  she  is  broken 
up  after  she  becomes  broody.  Oftentimes  when  hens  are 
allowed  to  sit  and  hatch  out  and  raise  their  brood  of 
poults  after  they  have  laid  their  first  litter  of  eggs  they  will 
begin  to  lay  again  in  the  fall  and  will  hatch  poults  at  that 
time  if  allowed  to  do  so.  This  is  not  desirable,  however, 
for  poults  hatched  at  this  time  are  not  very  valuable  and 
require  entirely  too  much  time  and  care  to  raise  them 
during  the  cold  weather. 

Fall  hatched  pullets  will  often  begin  laying  the  follow- 
ing spring  but  on  account  of  the  smaller  size  and  un- 
evenness  of  their  eggs,  they  do  not  make  desirable  breed- 
ers. It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  break  a  turkey  hen  of 
broodiness.  If  she  is  confined  to  a  slat  bottom  coop,  she 
can  usually  be  cured  of  her  broodiness  in  two  to  four 
days.  After  being  broken  up  and  let  out  she  will  mate 
again  in  a  short  time  and  often  begin  laying  in  about  a 
week. 

Locating  Stolen  Nests 

Where  the  breeders  are  given  free  range  the  turkey 
hens  generally  steal  off  and  select  the  nesting  place  where 

61 


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* 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

they  will  lay  their  eggs  and  hatch  the  poults.  If  a 
good  enclosed  breeding  yard  is  available  where  there  is 
little  or  no  danger  of  loss  of  the  eggs  as  the  result  of 
predatory  animals  of  any  kind,  it  is  not  a  bad  practice 
to  allow  the  hens  to  steal  their  nests.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  wild  turkey  hens  which  are  inclined  to  be 
badly  disturbed  by  having  their  nests  moved  or  by  be- 
ing bothered  too  much  while  they  are  sitting.  Usually 
there  is  considerable  danger  of  loss  of  the  eggs  either 
due  to  their  becoming  chilled  early  in  the  season  or  else  to 
their  being  destroyed  by  some  marauding  animal  such  as 
skunks,  opossums,  rats,  crows,  dogs,  minks,  coyotes, 
wolves,  foxes,  cats  and  snakes.  Some  of  these  marauders 
may  also  destroy  the  sitting  hen  herself. 

It  becomes  desirable  in  most  cases,  therefore,  to  locate 
stolen  nests  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  eggs  as 
they  are  laid,  although  it  is  always  necessary  to  leave  a 
nest  egg  or  two  so  that  the  hen  will  come  back  to  the  nest 
to  do  her  laying.  Stolen  nests  can  be  located  by  follow- 
ing the  hen  when  she  separates  from  the  flock  for  the 
purpose  of  going  to  her  nest  to  lay,  but  this  is  rather  a 
tedious  process  as  she  often  proceeds  to  the  nest  in  a  very 
leisurely  and  round  about  manner,  feeding  as  she  goes. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  make  sure  that  the  turkey  hen  is 
not  aware  of  the  fact  that  she  is  being  watched,  as  in  that 
case  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  her  to  betray  the  location  of 
her  nest.  Sometimes  a  bell  is  hung  about  the  necks  of 
turkey  hens  and  this  serves  as  a  help  in  locating  stolen 

63 


TURKEY  RAISING 

nests  as  well  as  helping  to  locate  the  hen  with  her  brood 
later  in  the  season. 

The  best  way  to  locate  stolen  nests  is  to  confine  the  hens 
in  question  in  the  morning  after  they  come  down  from 
the  roosts  and  to  keep  them  there  until  late  in  the  after- 
noon. This  necessitates  their  holding  back  the  egg  which 
they  would  probably  have  laid  in  the  morning,  and  as 
soon  as  they  are  let  out  in  the  afternoon  they  will  go 
straight  to  their  nests  in  order  to  deposit  the  egg  which 
they  have  been  holding. 

Turkeys  love  to  locate  their  nests  in  a  secluded  place 
such  as  thick  undergrowth  or  piles  of  brush.  They  also 
show  evidences  of  their  wild  ancestry  very  plainly  in  the 
way  in  which  they  cover  up  their  eggs  with  leaves  when 
they  leave  the  nest.  Usually  the  nests  are  so  cleverly  con- 
cealed in  this  manner  that  a  person  can  walk  right  by 
without  being  aware  that  a  nest  exists.  If  attractive  nest- 
ing places  are  provided  about  the  house  or  barn,  turkey 
hens  will  sometimes  lay  in  them.  This  is  more  likely  to 
be  the  case  in  the  North  where  there  may  be  snow  on  the 
ground  when  the  laying  first  begins,  as  during  the  time  the 
snow  stays  on  the  ground,  the  turkey  hens  are  less  in- 
clined to  roam  very  far. 

Suitable  nests  can  easily  be  made  from  boxes  or  barrels 
or  by  scooping  out  a  little  earth  from  the  ground  so  as  to 
form  a  nest.  A  barrel  laid  on  its  side  with  a  nest  of  hay 
or  straw  formed  in  it  is  one  of  the  favorite  nesting  places 
of  turkey  hens.  If  barrels  or  boxes  with  nesting  material 
in  them  are  placed  in  secluded  but  not  too  far  distant 

64 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  BREEDING  STOCK 

places  the  hens  will  often  select  them  as  a  nesting  place 
when  stealing  their  nests.  This  proves  to  be  a  great  con- 
venience as  it  will  save  considerable  time  in  hunting  for 
stolen  nests.  Not  infrequently  two  or  three  hens  may 
lay  in  the  same  nest.  In  this  case,  of  course,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  gather  the  eggs  as  they  are  laid,  leaving  only 
a  nest  egg  or  two,  as  too  many  eggs  will  be  laid  in  the 
nest  for  one  hen  to  cover  properly  when  hatching. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Hatching 

Not  infrequently  the  poor  results  which  are  obtained 
in  hatching  turkey  eggs  may  be  due  to  carelessness  in 
gathering  or  caring  for  the  eggs.  No  matter  how  the 
eggs  are  to  be  hatched,  whether  under  a  turkey  hen, 
chicken  hen  or  an  incubator,  it  is  usually  best  to  gather 
the  eggs  as  they  are  laid,  leaving  only  a  nest  egg  or  two 
except  in  those  cases  where  the  hen  has  stolen  her  nest 
in  a  safe  location  and  where  it  is  desired  to  let  her  hatch 
out  her  brood.  Gathering  the  eggs  in  this  way  will  pre- 
vent loss  from  crows  or  predatory  animals  and  will  also 
prevent  the  chilling  of  eggs  during  the  cold  weather  early 
in  the  season. 

If  the  weather  is  especially  cold  the  eggs  should  be 
gathered  as  promptly  after  laying  as  possible  in  order  to 
prevent  chilling  or  freezing.  As  the  eggs  are  gathered 
they  should  be  dated  so  that  they  will  not  be  held  too 
long  before  they  are  set.  Never  hold  turkey  eggs  over 
two  weeks  before  placing  them  either  under  a  turkey  hen, 

65 


TURKEY  RAISING 

a  chicken  hen,  or  in  the  incubator.  Eggs  for  hatching 
should  be  held  at  a  temperature  somewhere  around  50  or 
60  degrees.  They  should  also  be  turned  daily  in  order 
that  the  yolks  may  not  stick  to  the  shell.  In  handling  the 
eggs  be  as  careful  with  them  as  possible  so  as  not  to  jar 
them  or  crack  the  shell. 


66 


CHAPTER  IV 

Incubation  of  Turkey  Eggs 

Period  of  Incubation. — It  requires  on  the  average 
about  28  days  for  turkey  eggs  to  hatch.  As  with  any 
other  class  of  poultry,  however,  this  varies  somewhat. 
The  first  egg  generally  pips  early  on  the  27th  day  and  the 
first  poult  may  be  hatched  on  that  day.  The  hatch  should 
be  well  completed  at  the  end  of  the  28th  day.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  hatches  may  be  completed  slightly 
before  this  and  in  some  cases  the  hatch  may  not  be  com- 
plete before  the  end  of  30  days.  It  is  common  practice 
to  test  turkey  eggs  twice  during  incubation  as  in  the  case 
of  hens'  eggs  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  and  removing 
infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs.  This  testing  should  be 
done  on  the  loth  and  2Oth  days. 

Testing  may  be  done  in  a  dark  room,  proceeding  ex- 
actly as  with  hens'  eggs  and  using  a  tester  similar  to  that 
which  comes  with  an  incubator.  Testing  may  also  be 
done  by  means  of  a  tube  similar  to  an  ordinary  paste- 
board mailing  tube  which  is  cut  out  at  one  end  so  that  the 
egg  will  fit  closely  against  it.  This  tube  is  held  up  to  the 
eye  toward  the  sun  and  the  egg  placed  at  the  other  end  of 
the  tube.  In  this  position  the  sunlight  shines  through  and 
the  condition  of  the  egg  is  easily  seen.  Such  a  tube  tester 


TURKEY  RAISING 

is  more  convenient  for  use  when  the  eggs  are  set  under 
turkey  hens  and  are  scattered  about  the  farm  in  various 
places,  as  it  enables  one  to  do  the  testing  at  the  nest. 

Fertile  eggs  can  be  recognized  the  same  as  with  hens' 
eggs  by  the  fact  that  the  germ  appears  as  a  movable  spot 
from  which  blood  vessels  radiate  out.  If  the  germ  is 
dead  it  will  usually  be  attached  to  the  shell  and  the  blood 
will  have  settled  away  and  formed  a  ring  a  quarter  or  half 
an  inch  away  from  the  germ.  Infertile  eggs  will  show 
perfectly  clear  except  for  the  shadowy  outline  of  the 
yolk.  Any  infertile  eggs  tested  out  should  be  saved  and 
used  in  feeding  the  young  poults  when  they  hatch. 

Methods  of  Hatching 

Turkey  hens  are  reliable  sitters,  and  if  they  are 
properly  managed,  will  undoubtedly  give  the  best  results 
in  hatching  the  eggs.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
turkey  hens  sit  more  closely  on  the  eggs  than  do  most 
chicken  hens,  as  this  treatment  seems  to  be  favorable 
for  a  good  hatch  of  turkey  eggs.  In  addition  to  using 
turkey  hens  for  the  purpose  of  incubating  the  eggs  it 
sometimes  becomes  desirable  to  make  use  of  chicken 
hens  or,  more  rarely,  incubators.  This  is  often  done 
to  save  time  when  a  number  of  turkey  eggs  have  accumu- 
lated before  any  of  the  turkey  hens  have  finished  laying 
their  litter  and  are  ready  to  sit. 

It  is  also  frequently  done  when  it  is  desired  to  break 
the  turkey  hens  up  when  they  become  broody  in  order  to 

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INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 

cause  them  to  lay  a  second  and  third  litter  so  that  more 
eggs  for  hatching  will  be  available  and  more  poults  can 
be  raised.  Some  turkey  growers  hatch  the  turkey  eggs  in 
incubators  entirely,  even  though  they  use  the  turkey  hens 
to  brood  the  poults.  The  idea  in  this  case  is  to  save  the 
condition  of  the  hens  by  not  confining  them  and  subject- 
ing them  to  the  long  period  of  inactivity  while  they  are 
hatching.  Since  it  is  by  all  means  desirable  to  give  the 
poults  to  turkey  hens  to  raise,  it  is  good  practice  to  set  a 
sufficient  number  of  turkey  hens  about  a  week  before  the 
eggs,  which  may  be  under  chicken  hens  or  in  an  incu- 
bator, are  due  to  hatch.  These  hens  may  be  given  a  few 
of  the  eggs  from  the  incubator  or  the  chicken  hens  or 
they  may  be  set  on  a  nest  egg  or  two.  If  they  are  allowed 
to  hatch  a  few  of  the  eggs  themselves  it  is  an  easy  matter 
to  slip  more  newly  hatched  poults  under  them  from  the 
chicken  hens  or  from  the  incubator.  If  the  turkey  hens 
are  not  allowed  to  hatch  any  of  the  eggs  themselves  but 
are  set  on  nest  eggs  a  newly  hatched  poult  or  two  can  be 
slipped  under  each  turkey  hen  at  night  and  in  most  cases 
they  will  mother  these  poults  and  others  by  morning. 

Number  of  Eggs  to  Set 

There  should  be  a  very  definite  understanding  as  to 
what  constitutes  the  proper  number  of  eggs  to  set.  Never 
give  the  turkey  hen  or  a  chicken  hen  more  eggs  than 
she  can  cover  well.  Turkey  hens  will  ordinarily  cover 
from  15  to  1 8  eggs  to  good  advantage,  depending  on 

69 


TURKEY  RAISING 

the  size  of  the  hen,  while  chicken  hens  of  the  general 
purpose  type  such  as  the  Plymouth  Rock  will  cover 
from  8  to  10  eggs.  Unfortunately,  in  an  effort  to  utilize 
the  turkey  or  chicken  hens  to  the  fullest  advantage,  there 
is  a  great  tendency  to  place  more  eggs  under  them  than 
they  can  properly  cover.  The  result  of  this  is  that  one 
or  more  of  the  eggs  is  considerably  exposed  to  the  weather 
and  is  likely  to  become  chilled.  As  the  hen  moves  the 
eggs  around  in  the  nest  all  or  most  of  the  eggs  may  in 
turn  be  exposed  to  this  same  condition,  with  the  result 
that  the  hatch  is  entirely  spoiled  or  very  poor.  It  is  not 
infrequent  for  turkey  raisers  to  try  to  set  from  21  to 
23  eggs  under  a  medium  sized  turkey  hen  or  13  under  a 
chicken  hen.  Such  a  practice  will  not  give  good  results. 

Nest  for  Sitting  Hen 

In  constructing  or  preparing  a  nest  for  sitting  turkey 
or  chicken  hens  it  is  best  to  make  it  on  the  ground.  A 
little  earth  can  be  hollowed  out  of  the  ground  so  as  to 
make  a  depression  deep  enough  to  keep  the  eggs  from 
rolling  out  of  the  nest.  Clean  straw  or  hay  can  then 
be  used  as  a  thin  covering  over  this  hollow  to  form  a 
nest  and  to  prevent  the  eggs  from  being  directly  on  the 
ground.  A  good-sized  roomy  coop  should  be  placed  over 
the  nest  and  the  hen  to  keep  her  from  being  disturbed. 

Where  only  a  few  hens  are  kept  and  where  there  is 
little  danger  of  loss  of  eggs  or  of  the  hen  being  disturbed 
by  marauding  animals,  good  results  will  be  obtained  by 

70 


INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 

letting  the  hens  steal  their  nests.  As  a  rule,  however,  it 
will  be  found  much  more  convenient  and  much  more 
satisfactory  to  set  the  hen  in  a  nest  which  has  been  pre- 
pared for  her  and  which  will,  therefore,  be  more  con- 
venient and  more  protected.  This  is  especially  true  when 
a  number  of  hens  are  to  be  set,  as  this  will  allow  a  row  of 
nests  to  be  made  on  the  ground  next  to  one  another  but 
separated  with  solid  board  partitions,  and  will  greatly 
facilitate  taking  care  of  the  sitters.  Where  a  number  of 
hens  are  set  close  together  it  is  necessary  to  be  careful 
when  they  are  let  off  that  they  go  back  on  their  own  nests 
and  that  two  hens  do  not  try  to  crowd  on  the  same  nest, 
leaving  the  eggs  in  one  nest  to  become  chilled. 

Where  only  a  few  hens  are  set  they  can  be  placed  some 
distance  apart,  which  will  prevent  the  occurrence  of  this 
difficulty.  Often  nests  are  prepared  for  sitting  hens  in 
boxes  or  barrels  laid  on  their  side  and  so  arranged  that 
the  opening  can  be  shut  to  protect  them  from  marauding 
animals.  Where  nests  are  made  in  a  barrel  it  is  well  to 
bore  holes  in  the  bottom  so  that  if  the  rain  beats  in  and 
the  barrel  is  tight,  the  water  will  drain  out  and  the  eggs 
will  not  lie  in  water.  Where  nests  are  made  in  boxes  or 
on  wooden  floors  it  is  well  to  use  if  possible  sod  or  soil  in 
the  bottom  of  the  nest,  as  this  holds  some  moisture  and 
seems  to  give  more  favorable  conditions  for  a  good  hatch. 
Nests  prepared  for  laying  hens  or  for  sitting  hens  should 
be  roomy  enough  so  that  the  hens  can  go  on  the  nest  to 
lay,  turn  around,  and  come  off  without  breaking  the  eggs. 

71 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Setting  the  Hen 

A  turkey  hen  shows  that  she  is  ready  to  sit  when  she 
becomes  broody  and  stays  on  the  nest  for  two  or  three 
nights  in  succession.  She  may  then  be  trusted  with  the 
sitting  of  eggs.  If,  as  is  usually  advisable,  it  is  desired 
to  move  the  hen  from  the  nest  which  she  has  selected 
to  another  which  has  been  prepared  for  her,  she  should 
be  moved  to  the  new  nest  after  dark,  given  a  few  nest 
eggs  and  shut  on  the  nest  so  that  she  cannot  go  back 
to  the  old  one.  If  she  seems  to  be  contented  on  the  new 
nest  and  sits  quietly  she  can  be  allowed  to  come  off  on 
the  evening  of  the  following  day  and  the  sitting  of 
eggs  placed  in  the  nest.  In  most  cases  on  being  let  off 
the  nest  she  will  return  to  the  old  nest.  If  she  does  so, 
it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  carry  her  back  to  the  new 
nest  and  confine  her  there.  In  most  cases  she  will  im- 
mediately settle  down  on  the  eggs  and  seem  to  be  con- 
tented. It  may  happen,  however,  for  two  or  three  days 
longer,  that  when  she  is  let  off  in  the  evening  she  will 
return  to  the  old  nest.  Each  time  she  does  so  it  is  neces- 
sary to  carry  her  back  to  the  new  nest  but  after  three  or 
four  days  at  most  she  will  become  used  to  the  new  nest 
and  will  remain  there. 

Management  of  Sitting  Hen 

When  left  to  themselves  turkey  hens  frequently  stay 
on  the  nest  for  two  or  three  days  at  a  time  without  com- 

72 


INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 

ing  off  for  feed  or  water.  It  is  best,  however,  when  they 
are  confined  to  a  coop,  to  give  them  an  opportunity  to 
come  off  of  the  nest  each  day.  This  will  give  them 
an  opportunity  to  stretch  their  wings  and  to  walk 
around  and  fly  a  little,  and  this  exercise  rests  them  and 
helps  to  keep  them  in  the  best  of  condition.  Sometimes 
turkey  hens  sit  so  closely  that  they  will  not  come  off 
at  all  of  their  own  accord  and  will  starve  unless  they 
are  made  to  come  off  for  feed  and  water.  Whole  corn 
is  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  sitting  hens  and  as  much 
of  this  as  they  desire  should  be  given  them  once  a  day 
when  they  are  let  off  the  nests.  Fresh  water  should  also 
be  provided  at  this  time  as  well  as  a  supply  of  grit. 

Should  any  of  the  eggs  in  the  nest  become  broken  and 
soil  the  others,  or  if  they  should  become  badly  soiled  in 
any  other  way  it  is  best  to  clean  them  by  washing  with  a 
cloth  dipped  in  luke-warm  water.  The  nesting  material 
must  also  be  kept  clean.  Just  before  the  poults  are  due  to 
hatch  it  is  good  practice  to  remove  the  old  nesting  ma- 
terial and  replace  it  with  new  clean  straw  or  hay.  If  the 
weather  is  dry  it  will  usually  be  found  best  to  sprinkle  the 
eggs  which  are  set  under  turkey  or  chicken  hens  two  or 
three  times  during  the  last  week  of  incubation  with  water 
heated  to  blood  temperature.  It  is  often  good  policy  to 
remove  the  first  poults  which  are  hatched,  taking  them 
into  the  house  and  wrapping  them  in  flannel  or  leaving 
them  in  a  flannel  lined  basket  near  the  stove.  If  the  first 
poults  hatched  are  left  with  the  hen  she  sometimes  be- 
comes restless  before  the  hatch  is  complete.  The  poults 

73 


TURKEY  RAISING 

which  are  taken  away  from  her  can  be  returned  readily 
after  the  hatch  is  complete,  putting  them  under  her  at 
night. 

Dusting  the  Sitting  Hen  for  Lice. — In  order  to  keep 
the  hen  faithfully  on  the  job  it  is  necessary  to  see  that 
she  is  as  free  as  possible  from  annoyance  by  lice.  To 
accomplish  this  and  also  to  prevent  the  lice  from  being 
troublesome  to  the  young  poults  when  they  are  hatched, 
the  hen  should  be  thoroughly  dusted  with  a  good  lice 
powder  before  she  is  placed  on  the  nest.  Similar  treat- 
ment should  be  given  to  the  hen  and  the  nest  once  a  week 
during  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  incubation  period. 
Do  not  dust  her  just  before  hatching  commences  as  the 
insect  powder  may  prove  harmful  or  fatal  to  the  newly 
hatched  poults.  An  effective  homemade  lice  powder  for 
use  on  turkey  hens  can  be  made  of  I  part  crude  carbolic 
acid  and  3  parts  gasoline,  stirring  in  enough  plaster-of- 
paris  to  take  up  all  the  moisture  and  to  form  a  dry  pow- 
der. In  mixing  this  lice  powder  do  not  put  the  hands  into 
the  mixture  while  moist  as  the  carbolic  acid  may  burn 
them  slightly.  Sodium  fluoride  is  very  effective  to  use  in 
dusting  the  sitting  hen.  Directions  for  using  this  are 
given  on  page  126. 

Hatching  with  Chicken  Hens 

In  hatching  with  chicken  hens  a  sitting  of  eggs  should 
not  be  entrusted  to  them  until  they  show  by  the  fact  that 
they  have  become  broody  and  stayed  on  the  nest  for  a 

74 


INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 

couple  of  nights  in  succession  that  they  are  ready  to  sit. 
When  they  have  shown  that  they  are  in  proper  condition 
they  can  then  be  removed  to  a  nest  previously  prepared  for 
them  and  a  couple  of  nest  eggs  placed  under  each  hen. 
This  should  be  done  in  the  evening,  and  if  by  morning 
they  are  still  sitting  closely  and  seem  to  be  contented  in 
their  new  quarters  the  sittings  of  eggs  can  be  placed  under 
them.  Chicken  hens  are  best  set  in  a  house  or  shed  and 
should  be  confined  to  the  nest.  They  should  be  let  off  once 
a  day,  preferably  toward  evening,  to  get  a  supply  of  feed 
and  to  drink.  Whole  corn  is  a  good  feed  for  sitting  hens. 
As  soon  as  they  have  eaten  and  drunk  and  have  exercised 
a  few  minutes  they  should  be  put  back  on  the  nest  if  they 
do  not  return  of  their  own  accord. 

Hatching  with  an  Incubator 

Turkey  eggs  can  be  hatched  in  an  incubator  almost  if 
not  quite  as  successfully  as  hens'  eggs.  In  fact,  in  many 
cases  turkey  eggs  will  be  found  to  hatch  better  than  the 
average  run  of  hens'  eggs,  as  turkey  eggs  when  fertile  and 
from  good  vigorous  stock  usually  hatch  very  well.  One 
turkey  grower  has  reported  as  the  result  of  a  considerable 
experience  in  hatching  with  incubators  that  he  secures 
about  60%  vigorous  poults  from  the  fertile  eggs  set.  An- 
other grower  reports  much  better  success  than  this,  as  is 
shown  by  an  instance  where  109  poults  were  secured  out 
of  112  fertile  eggs.  Any  of  the  different  styles  of  incuba- 
tors giving  success  with  hens'  eggs  can  be  used  for  turkey 

75 


TURKEY  RAISING 

eggs  as  well.  The  thermometer  should  be  so  placed  that 
the  bulb  is  about  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  eggs.  If 
the  thermometer  is  left  in  the  same  position  as  when  it  is 
used  in  hatching  hens'  eggs  the  temperature  should  be  J4 
to  I  degree  lower  than  that  used  for  hatching  hens'  eggs. 

A  temperature  ranging  about  102  degrees  for  the  first 
week,  slightly  more  than  this  for  the  second  week  and 
103  degrees  the  third  and  fourth  weeks  seems  to  give  good 
satisfaction.  If  the  temperature  runs  up  to  104  or  even 
to  105  at  hatching  time,  it  will  do  no  harm.  If  the  hatch- 
ing is  completed  earlier  than  with  natural  incubation,  it 
is  an  indication  that  a  temperature  slightly  too  high  is 
being  used.  Beginning  with  the  third  day  and  continuing 
until  the  first  egg  pips,  the  eggs  should  be  turned  twice  a 
day,  that  is,  in  the  morning  and  in  the  evening.  During 
the  first  week,  the  eggs  do  not  need  to  be  cooled  longer 
than  the  time  required  to  turn  them  leisurely.  After  the 
first  week  and  until  the  machine  is  shut  up  for  hatching, 
they  should  be  cooled  until  they  feel  cool  when  held 
against  the  face. 

In  hatching  turkey  eggs  in  an  incubator  it  is  best  to  use 
considerable  moisture.  A  good  practice  in  this  respect  is 
to  sprinkle  the  eggs  with  water  warmed  to  about  blood 
temperature  each  day  during  the  last  week  right  up  to 
the  time  the  eggs  pip,  and  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry 
a  dish  of  warm  water  should  also  be  placed  on  the  bottom 
of  the  machine  under  the  egg  trays.  Poults  hatched  in  an 
incubator  seem  to  be  quite  as  healthy  as  those  hatched 
under  turkey  or  chicken  hens.  An  incubator  will  accom- 


FIG.  24.  Enclosed  run  for  turkey  poults  made  by  using 
a  wagon  box.  (Photograph  from  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


INCUBATION  OF  TURKEY  EGGS 

modate  approximately  three-fourths  as  many  turkey  eggs 
as  it  will  hens'  eggs. 

A  good  idea  of  the  size  of  turkey  eggs  can  be  secured 
from  the  following  weights  of  eggs  laid  by  Bronze  fe- 
males in  a  well-bred  flock.  The  medium-sized  eggs 
weighed  2%  Ibs.  per  dozen,  while  the  smaller  eggs 
weighed  2j^lbs.  per  dozen.  Eggs  from  a  good-sized 
pullet  weighed  2^/2  Ibs.  per  dozen  and  eggs  from  a  25- 
pound  hen,  one  of  the  largest  in  the  flock,  weighed  3  Ibs. 
per  dozen.  As  compared  with  this,  average  sized  hens' 
eggs  weigh  il/2  Ibs.  per  dozen. 


77 


CHAPTER  V 
Brooding  and  Rearing  the  Young  Stock 

Causes  of  Loss  among  Poults. — The  proper  brooding 
and  care  of  the  newly  hatched  poults  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  factor  in  raising  turkeys  successfully.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  loss  of  young  turkeys  occurs  when 
the  poults  are  less  than  a  week  old.  Comparatively  few 
are  lost  after  they  have  attained  an  age  of  one  month 
except,  of  course,  where  there  is  a  disease  epidemic.  Un- 
der ordinary  conditions  with  fairly  good  care  about  50% 
of  the  poults  hatched  out  will  be  reared.  This  means 
about  seven  poults  for  every  turkey  hen  that  hatched  out 
a  brood.  Experienced  and  very  careful  turkey  raisers 
who  give  their  young  stock  special  care  and  who  under- 
stand the  nature  and  the  needs  of  the  turkeys  are  able  to 
raise  a  higher  percentage  than  this.  The  following  may 
be  given  as  the  principal  causes  of  heavy  losses  among 
young  turkeys : 

1 i )  Exposure  to  dampness  and  cold. 

(2)  Improper  or  over  feeding. 

(3)  Too  close  confinement. 

(4)  Lice. 

(5)  Predatory  animals. 

78 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

(6)  Inherent  weakness  due  to  carelessness  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  parent  stock  or  to  careless  breeding. 

(7)  Disease. 

Protection  for  the  Poults 

When  the  hatch  is  completed  and  the  young  turkeys 
begin  to  run  about  outside  the  nest  it  is  time  to  move  the 
turkey  hen  and  her  brood  to  a  suitable  place  which  should 
have  been  prepared  for  them  previously.  Such  a  coop 
must  provide  the  brood  with  shelter  from  the  rain,  should 
have  sufficient  room  to  allow  the  turkey  hen  to  stand 
up  and  to  walk  about,  should  be  so  constructed  that  it 
can  be  closed  at  night  so  that  animals  cannot  get  at  the 
turkeys,  and  at  the  same  time  must  provide  plentiful 
ventilation. 

Any  type  of  coop  which  embodies  these  requisites  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  One  coop  should  be  provided  for 
each  hen  and  her  brood,  and  there  should  never  be  any 
attempt  made  to  place  two  hens  together  in  the  same  coop. 
A  coop  3  by  6  feet  or  one  4  feet  square  will  be  found  a 
suitable  size  for  a  hen  and  brood.  One  successful  turkey 
grower  recommends  the  use  of  a  coop  which  is  36  by  40 
inches  and  only  12  inches  high.  This  particular  coop 
has  a  galvanized  iron  top  with  slats  all  the  way  around 
the  outside.  The  idea  of  using  a  low  coop  is  that  it  com- 
pels the  hen  to  squat  or  sit  so  that  as  long  as  she  is  con- 
fined to  the  coop  the  young  poults  can  crawl  under  her  if 
they  become  chilled  and  will  not  find  her  standing  up,  when 

79 


TURKEY  RAISING 

she  might  refuse  to  hover  them.  If  it  is  desired  to  con- 
fine the  poults  to  this  coop  for  a  day  or  two  this  can  be 
readily  done  by  placing  6  or  8-inch  boards  against  the 
outside  of  the  coop. 

Sometimes  a  pen  made  of  12-  or  14-inch  boards  laid  on 
edge  or  a  wire  pen  is  used  in  connection  with  the  coop 
where  the  hen  is  confined.  Such  a  yard  is  used  to  confine 
the  poults  until  they  are  old  enough  to  fly  over,  at  which 
time  both  the  poults  and  the  hen  are  given  their  liberty. 
The  coops  should  not  be  placed  too  close  together  but 
should  preferably  be  scattered  about  over  the  well-drained 
portions  of  the  farm  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  ten- 
der green  feed  and  other  natural  feed  such  as  weeds  and 
insects,  especially  grasshoppers.  It  is  likewise  desirable 
to  locate  the  coops  where  the  grass  is  short.  This  ac- 
complishes the  double  purpose  of  insuring  tender  green 
feed  and  also  of  causing  less  difficulty  from  the  poults 
getting  chilled  going  through  the  long  wet  grass.  Where 
the  grass  is  short  it  is  possible  to  let  the  poults  out  earlier 
in  the  morning. 

It  is  often  desirable  to  locate  the  coops  where  they  can 
be  readily  seen  from  the  house  and  where  it  is  easy  to 
attend  to  them.  This  is  particularly  true  when  the  work 
of  caring  for  the  turkeys  falls  to  the  lot  of  the  housewife, 
as  it  makes  her  work  convenient.  The  coop  should  be  so 
constructed  that  it  can  be  easily  moved,  and  it  should  be 
an  unvarying  practice  to  move  the  coop  each  day  to  a 
fresh  location  so  that  the  ground  upon  which  it  is  placed 
will  be  kept  clean  and  sweet  and  there  -will  always  be  an 

80 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

opportunity  for  the  hen  and  her  young  to  secure  a  supply 
of  fresh  green  feed  inside  the  coop.  For  this  reason  the 
coops  should  be  without  floors. 

The  necessity  for  plentiful  exercise  for  the  poults  can- 
not be  over  emphasized.  For  this  reason  they  should  be 
allowed  to  run  whenever  possible.  Of  course,  it  is  folly 
to  let  the  young  run  out  in  rainstorms  if  this  can  be 
avoided,  but  whenever  the  weather  is  suitable  they  should 
be  allowed  to  run  even  when  it  is  necessary  to  confine  the 
hen.  If  there  is  a  long  continued  period  of  bad  rainy 
weather,  it  will  be  found  as  a  rule  better  policy  to  confine 
the  hen  but  to  allow  the  poults  to  run  out  whenever  it  is 
not  actually  raining,  even  if  they  do  have  to  range  through 
damp  grass.  Since  the  hen  is  confined  the  poults  will  not 
range  far  and  can  always  return  to  her  and  she  will  be 
ready  to  hover  them  and  warm  them  up  if  they  become 
chilled. 

A  well-drained  location,  such  as  a  sandy  or  light  soil,  is 
very  desirable  in  order  to  keep  the  interior  of  the  coop 
perfectly  dry.  A  location  where  there  is  some  protection 
from  heavy  winds  is  also  desirable.  If  it  becomes  neces- 
sary on  account  of  the  weather  to  confine  the  hen  for  a 
week  or  more,  this  can  be  done  provided  she  is  given 
proper  care  by  being  fed  and  -watered  and  that  the  coop 
is  moved  to  fresh  ground  each  day.  When  the  weather 
is  warm  and  dry,  as  is  more  likely  to  be  the  case  with  the 
poults  hatched  later  in  the  season,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
provide  shelter  for  the  hen  and  poults.  In  fact,  they  will 
be  likely  to  do  better  in  the  open.  It  is,  however,  advisa- 

81 


TURKEY  RAISING 

ble  to  keep  them  for  the  first  three  or  four  days  within  a 
fenced  enclosure  such  as  a  garden  until  the  poults  gain 
sufficient  strength  so  that  they  can  keep  up  with  the  hen 
without  any  difficulty.  Sometimes  the  turkey  hen  instead 
of  being  shut  in  a  coop  is  tethered  out  to  a  tree  or  post 
for  the  first  few  days  by  means  of  a  cord  fastened  to  one 
leg.  For  convenience  in  moving  the  hen  and  her  brood 
to  fresh  ground  each  day,  the  cord  by  which  she  is  tied 
may  be  fastened  to  a  weight  too  heavy  for  her  to  move. 
Under  favorable  conditions  the  hen  and  brood  can  be 
allowed  to  run  at  liberty  after  the  third  or  fourth  day. 
It  is  most  desirable,  however,  to  keep  the  youngsters  out 
of  the  heavy  dews  of  the  morning  and  to  protect  them 
from  rain  during  the  first  two  or  three  weeks.  After 
they  have  reached  this  age,  especially  after  their  backs  are 
covered  with  feathers,  dews  or  light  showers  followed  by 
warm  sunshine  are  not  serious  as  the  poults  will  warm  up 
quickly.  If  a  period  of  cold  damp  weather  sets  in  even 
after  this  age  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  the  poults 
with  dry  quarters  and  perhaps  to  keep  them  from  running 
at  liberty  part  of  the  time.  Nothing  is  more  serious  and 
fatal  to  young  poults  than  becoming  thoroughly  wet  and 
chilled.  Occasionally  young  turkeys  will  get  caught  in 
severe  rainstorms  and  not  be  properly  hovered  by  their 
mothers  so  that  they  may  become  thoroughly  wet  and 
chilled  or  even  drowned.  It  is  occasionally  possible  to 
revive  young  turkeys  that  are  apparently  dead  by  wrap- 
ping them  in  heated  cloths  and  putting  them  in  the  house 
behind  the  stove. 

82 


35 -O 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

While  chicken  hens  are  sometimes  used  as  mothers  for 
the  young  turkeys,  and  while  a  few  persons  have  used 
artificial  methods  of  brooding  with  some  success,  the  tur- 
key hen  is  undoubtedly  the  best  mother  that  can  be  pro- 
vided for  the  young  poults.  She  not  only  seems  to  be  able 
to  make  them  understand  what  she  wants  them  to  do  but 
she  is  very  careful  in  guarding  them  from  any  danger  and, 
moreover,  while  she  is  ranging  she  keeps  her  brood  to- 
gether, not  allowing  them  to  become  widely  separated  so 
that  any  of  them  are  not  likely  to  become  lost.  She  is 
especially  apt  also  in  teaching  them  to  hunt  the  kind  of 
food  such  as  grasshoppers  and  other  insects  which  are 
especially  well  suited  for  their  growth  and  development. 
Chicken  hens  are  often  valuable  mothers  of  the  earliest 
turkeys  as  they  can  be  confined  with  their  broods  to  better 
advantage  during  the  cold,  bad,  wet  weather  so  likely  to 
be  encountered  at  that  time. 

It  is  often  desirable  in  setting  turkey  eggs  to  give  a  sit- 
ting to  a  turkey  hen  and  to  a  chicken  hen  at  the  same  time 
so  that  they  will  hatch  out  together  and  all  of  the  poults 
can  be  given  to  the  turkey  hen  since  she  makes  a  better 
mother.  It  is  best,  however,  not  to  give  the  turkey  hen 
more  than  20  poults  as  she  will  raise  a  considerably  larger 
proportion  of  this  number  than  if  given  30  or  35. 

The  principal  objections  to  the  chicken  hen  as  a  mother 
for  turkeys  are  that  she  stays  too  close  about  the  farm 
buildings,  that  she  weans  the  young  turkeys  too  early  and 
that  she  is  more  likely  to  give  them  lice.  Turkeys  do  best 
when  they  do  not  stay  too  closely  about  the  farmyard  and 

83 


TURKEY  RAISING 

also  when  they  are  kept  separate  from  other  fowls  and 
chicks.  It  is  quite  as  necessary  to  keep  turkeys  and  chick- 
ens separate  as  it  is  to  separate  hogs  and  sheep.  Some- 
times a  turkey  hen  and  her  brood  and  a  chicken  hen  and 
her  brood  of  poults  of  the  same  age  are  put  out  in  coops 
near  one  another.  This  seems  to  work  to  pretty  good 
advantage  as  the  turkey  hen  tends  to  take  the  chicken  hen 
and  her  brood  farther  away  from  the  buildings  while  the 
chicken  hen  tends  to  keep  the  turkey  hen  and  her  brood 
from  straying  too  far.  Moreover,  when  the  chicken  hen 
weans  her  little  turkeys  at  an  age  which  is  too  early  for 
their  best  development,  the  turkey  hen  will  usually  mother 
and  care  for  both  broods. 

Bowel  trouble  or  diarrhea  is  a  frequent  source  of  diffi- 
culty with  the  little  turkeys.  The  causes  of  bowel  trou- 
ble are  several  and  the  effects  of  it  on  the  little  turkeys  are 
bad.  Bowel  trouble  may  result  from  overfeeding  or  from 
faulty  feeding  such  as  improper  feeds  or  sloppy  feeds, 
and  may  likewise  be  the  result  of  severe  chill.  The  feed- 
ing of  boiled  rice  is  claimed  by  many  turkey  growers  to 
be  a  good  corrective  for  diarrhea.  It  is  seldom  necessary 
to  keep  the  hen  and  poults  confined  for  more  than  a  few 
days  at  a  time.  The  sooner  they  can  be  given  free  range 
the  better  it  will  be  all  around.  The  question  of  whether 
they  should  be  put  in  the  coop  at  night  after  they  have 
ranged  during  the  day  up  to  the  time  they  are  ready  to 
roost  depends  both  on  the  weather  and  the  danger  that 
exists  of  their  being  killed  by  marauding  animals.  Occa- 
sional gobblers  may  prove  troublesome  in  killing  young 

84 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

turkeys  or  young  chickens,  but  this  is  not  very  common. 
Where  a  gobbler  shows  such  a  disposition,  he  must,  of 
course,  be  kept  away  from  the  poults  until  they  get  older 
or  else  must  be  disposed  of.  On  the  other  hand  gobblers 
will  occasionally  help  to  brood  the  young. 

Rearing  Poults  by  Artificial  Means 

When  the  effort  is  made  to  brood  turkey  poults  artifi- 
cially some  people  experience  difficulty  in  getting  the  young- 
sters to  eat,  as  they  seem  to  go  about  with  their  heads  up 
in  the  air  and  not  to  see  the  food  on  the  ground  or  floor. 
To  teach  these  youngsters  to  eat,  a  baby  chick  or  two  is 
sometimes  put  with  them  and  serves  by  its  example  to 
teach  the  turkeys  where  to  find  the  feed.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  in  most  cases  where  artificial  methods  are 
employed  there  is  too  great  an  eagerness  on  the  part  of  the 
turkey  raiser  to  get  the  poults  to  eat,  as  they  should  have 
nothing  until  they  are  two  days  old.  The  yolk  of  the 
egg  which  has  been  absorbed  just  before  the  poults 
hatched  furnishes  all  the  feed  they  need  during  this  period. 
There  is  a  grave  tendency  to  over-feed  poults  -whether 
raised  by  natural  or  artificial  methods  but,  of  course,  this 
is  particularly  true  under  artificial  conditions  where  all  of 
the  feed  for  the  first  two  or  three  weeks  at  any  rate  is 
supplied  by  the  person  looking  after  the  youngsters. 

Where  the  effort  is  made  to  rear  turkey  poults  by  arti- 
ficial means  the  usual  course  followed  is  to  make  use  of 
heated  brooders  such  as  are  used  for  little  chicks.  In 

85 


TURKEY  RAISING 

general,  the  management  of  the  poults  in  the  brooders  is 
just  the  same  as  that  given  to  chicks.  It  is  best  not  to 
place  more  than  25  or  30  poults  under  a  hover  large 
enough  for  50  chicks.  In  some  cases  it  appears  that  the 
hovers  provided  for  baby  chicks  are  not  quite  high  enough 
for  turkey  poults,  with  the  result  that  they  are  inclined  to 
develop  a  leg  weakness  due  to  their  backs  being  too  close 
to  the  source  of  heat.  The  common  stove  brooder  with 
hovers  which  can  be  raised  can  undoubtedly  be  adapted 
to  raising  turkey  poults  artificially  to  very  good  advan- 
tage. At  first  the  temperature  under  the  hover  should 
be  about  90  to  100  degrees  and  is  gradually  reduced  as 
the  turkeys  grow  older  until  it  is  down  to  70  degrees  in 
about  three  weeks'  time.  After  the  poults  are  six  to 
eight  weeks  old  they  no  longer  need  heat  as  a  rule. 

A  successful  example  of  rearing  turkeys  artificially  is 
that  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  of  the  University  of 
California  at  its  farm  at  Davis,  Cal.,  where  turkeys  are 
run  at  the  rate  of  about  300  or  400  per  acre  in  yards, 
Here  they  are  hatched  and  reared  artificially  with  good 
success.  The  newly  hatched  poults  are  started  upon  a 
moist  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  chick  grain  and  chick 
mash  in  which  there  has  been  mixed  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  very  finely  chopped  tender  greens  such  as  onions, 
etc.  A  power  driven  meat  chopper  or  sausage  cutter  is 
used  for  grinding  the  green  stuff  and  the  juice  which  is 
extracted  in  this  grinding  is  used  to  mix  a  crumbly  mash. 

At  first  the  turkeys  are  fed  four  times  a  day,  but  after 
a  few  weeks  the  feedings  are  reduced  to  three  a  day  and 

86 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

at  about  five  weeks  of  age,  grain  is  fed  morning  and  night 
with  a  feeding  of  moist  mash  and  finely  cut  green  stuff  at 
noon.  This  method  of  feeding  is  continued  until  the  tur- 
keys are  practically  full  grown.  During  the  non-breeding 
season  the  adult  stock  is  fed  almost  entirely  upon  two 
feedings  of  grain  a  day  and  all  of  the  buttermilk  they  can 
drink.  During  the  breeding  season  the  birds  are  given  a 
crumbly  mash  at  noon  in  addition  to  the  grain  feeds. 
Plenty  of  green  stuff,  grit  and  shell  are  always  provided. 
No  houses  have  been  used,  open  air  roosts  6  or  7  feet  high 
being  erected  in  each  yard.  It  is  planned,  however,  to 
erect  shed  roof  houses  to  furnish  shelter  from  the  rain- 
storms. In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  turkeys  are  kept  and 
reared  under  confined  conditions  new  blood  has  been  in- 
troduced into  this  flock  each  year. 

Feeding  the  Poults 

Improper  feeding,  especially  when  combined  with  too 
close  confinement,  has  accounted  for  many  failures  in 
turkey  raising.  When  given  free  range  the  poults  are 
exercising  all  day  long  in  their  search  for  food  and  are 
therefore  not  so  likely  to  be  overfed.  If  the  range 
available  is  abundantly  stocked  with  natural  feed  and  if 
the  weather  is  favorable  so  that  the  poults  can  be  al- 
lowed to  range  all  of  the  time  perhaps  the  best  plan 
is  to  allow  the  hen  and  her  brood  to  feed  themselves. 
Even  under  these  conditions,  however,  it  is  best  to  have 
the  turkeys  come  home  at  night  and  this  can  be  more 

87 


TURKEY  RAISING 

readily  accomplished  if  they  are  driven  up  to  a  certain 
place  and  fed  lightly  each  night.  By  following  this  prac- 
tice they  soon  learn  to  come  to  this  point  daily  of  their 
own  accord. 

Judgment  must  be  exercised  in  determining  whether  or 
not  the  range  supplies  feed  enough  early  in  the  season, 
and  it  is  often  necessary  to  continue  to  supply  some  feed 
until  grasshoppers  become  plentiful.  Where  on  account 
of  unfavorable  weather  or  an  unfavorable  condition  of  the 
range  or  any  other  cause  it  seems  to  be  best  to  keep  the 
poults  cooped  more  or  less,  great  care  must  be  exercised 
in  their  proper  feeding,  remembering  that  for  the  first 
two  days  after  hatching  they  require  no  feed.  During 
this  time  clean  fresh  water  and  a  little  coarse  sand  with 
perhaps  a  little  green  feed  to  pick  at  is  all  that  they  will 
need,  but  beginning  -with  the  third  day  it  is  necessary  to 
supply  them  with  feed,  the  amount  required  varying  ac- 
cording to  the  amount  of  natural  feed  which  they  are  able 
to  secure  for  themselves  outside  of  the  coop.  The  most 
careful  judgment  of  the  turkey  raiser  must  be  exercised 
in  this  particular. 

The  poults  must  be  kept  hungry  all  the  time.  They 
should  never  be  fed  so  much  that  their  desire  for  ranging 
in  search  of  feed  is  destroyed  as  this  will  lead  to  a  lack  of 
exercise  with  consequent  digestive  and  other  troubles.  If 
the  amount  of  natural  feed  which  they  can  secure  is  very 
scarce  or  if  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  poults  from  ranging 
outside  to  any  extent,  they  should  be  fc*d  lightly  about 
five  times  a  day.  If  they  are  allowed  to  run  outside  the 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

coop  and  can  secure  more  or  less  natural  feed  through 
their  own  efforts  two  or  three  feeds  a  day  are  usually 
enough.  Sloppy  feed  should  never  be  given  to  poults. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  feeds  used  for  young  poults, 
all  of  which  may  be  successfully  employed,  the  particular 
success  attending  the  different  kinds  depending  to  quite 
an  extent  upon  the  person  who  is  feeding.  The  follow- 
ing common  feeds  used  may  be  mentioned:  (i)  Hard- 
boiled  egg  chopped  fine  together  with  corn  bread  crumbs 
for  the  first  few  days.  After  this,  whole  wheat  and  hulled 
oats.  (2)  Stale  bread  soaked  in  milk  and  squeezed  dry. 
This  is  used  for  the  first  few  days  and  is  then  replaced 
with  common  chick  feed.  (3)  Clabbered  milk  seasoned 
with  salt  and  pepper  together  with  corn  bread  crumbs. 
(4)  Equal  parts  pinhead  oats,  whole  -wheat  and  cracked 
corn.  (5)  Cracked  wheat.  (6)  Corn  meal  and  wheat 
bran  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  three  to  one  and  bakecf 
into  a  bread  which  should  be  baked  fairly  hard  and  fed 
in  a  crumbly  condition.  (7)  Bran  or  middlings  one-half, 
cracked  Egyptian  corn  one-fourth,  wheat  and  hulled  oats 
one- fourth. 

Milk  is  also  a  most  valuable  feed  for  the  poults.  Usu- 
ally skim  milk  is  used  for  this  purpose  but  whole  milk  if 
available  can  be  utilized.  The  milk  is  best  fed  sour  as  the 
acid  in  the  sour  milk  seems  to  have  more  or  less  disease 
preventive  properties.  Sour  milk  can  be  left  before  the 
poults  during  the  morning  for  a  drink,  without  any  water 
being  available,  and  water  given  to  them  during  the  after- 
noon. Water  or  milk  should  be  given  to  the  poults  in  a 


TURKEY  RAISING 

drinking  fountain  or  in  some  other  manner  so  that  they 
can  have  ready  access  to  it,  but  so  that  they  cannot  get 
into  it  and  get  wet.  Rolled  oats  and  corn  bread  crumbs 
fed  in  conjunction  with  sweet  milk  as  a  drink  where  the 
poults  can  help  themselves  to  it  all  the  morning  has  been 
a  very  successful  feed,  the  rolled  oats  being  fed  at  noon 
and  the  corn  bread  crumbs  at  night.  Corn  bread  seems 
to  be  a  feed  of  which  the  poults  are  fonder  than  most  any 
other.  Clabbered  milk  or  cottage  cheese  and  bread  soaked 
in  milk  and  then  squeezed  dry  are  also  feeds  which  the 
poults  like  immensely.  Hard-boiled  eggs  rubbed  up  with 
rolled  oats  makes  a  very  good  feed  for  young  poults  until 
they  are  two  or  three  weeks  old.  In  conjunction  with  this 
may  be  fed  clabbered  milk. 

Another  successful  feed  used  by  turkey  growers  con- 
sists of  ordinary  white  wheat  bread  cut  up  in  slices  so  as 
to  let  it  dry  and  then  rolled  into  crumbs.  This  is  mois- 
tened with  a  little  sweet  or  sour  milk  and  fed  mixed  with 
hard-boiled  eggs.  The  bread  is  just  moistened  and  is  not 
sticky  or  sloppy.  Any  infertile  eggs  tested  out  of  the  sit- 
tings should  be  saved  for  this  purpose.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible when  living  near  a  hatchery  to  purchase  infertile 
eggs  which  have  been  tested  out  of  the  incubators  and 
which  can  be  used  for  this  purpose.  The  wheat  bread  and 
boiled  egg  can  be  fed  for  about  three  weeks,  mixing  with 
it  occasionally  a  little  rolled  oats.  After  three  weeks, 
rolled  oats  and  chick  feed  can  be  gradually  substituted  and 
after  four  or  five  weeks  old  they  are  fed  grain  sparingly 
and  only  at  night  when  they  come  home.  In  this  connec- 

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BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

tion  it  might  be  well  to  state  that  where  it  is  possible  to 
do  so,  it  is  well  to  feel  of  the  crops  of  some  of  the  turkeys 
when  they  come  in  at  night  from  the  range.  If  the  crops 
are  full  very  little  feed  should  be  given,  while  if  the  crops 
are  partly  empty,  more  feed  can  be  used  to  advantage. 
Feeling  the  crop  in  this  way  is  a  guide  to  the  amount  of 
grain  which  should  be  given. 

Green  feed  and  grit  can  usually  be  found  by  the  poults 
if  they  range  outside  of  their  coop.  If  they  are  not  avail- 
able, however,  they  must  be  supplied.  Chopped  onion 
tops,  lettuce  leaves,  dandelion  leaves,  kale,  cabbage  and 
alfalfa  make  good  green  feed.  Coarse  sand  furnishes  a 
satisfactory  form  of  grit.  Charcoal  should  be  available 
to  the  poults  as  this  is  an  excellent  preventative  for  di- 
gestive troubles.  While  the  hen  is  confined  to  the  coop 
she  must  be  carefully  fed  as  well  as  the  poults.  To  do 
this  give  her  a  feed  twice  a  day  of  all  of  the  grains  such 
as  equal  parts  wheat,  corn  and  oats,  which  she  will  eat  up. 
In  addition  to  this  she  must  be  supplied  with  green  feed, 
Water  and  grit  where  she  can  help  herself.  As  an  aid 
to  keeping  her  in  first-class  condition  an  occasional  feed 
of  meat  scrap  or  fresh  lean  meat  of  some  kind  will  be 
very  valuable  and  is  greatly  relished. 

In  feeding  the  hen  while  she  is  confined  to  the  coop  be 
sure  to  feed  her  inside  while  the  poults  are  fed  outside  of 
the  coop.  If  the  poults  are  given  their  feed  inside  the 
coop  the  hen  may  eat  a  large  part  of  it  away  from  them, 
but  if  they  are  fed  outside  it  is  easier  to  gauge  the  amount 
they  are  eating  and  to  regulate  it  more  intelligently. 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Lice  on  Poults 

One  of  the  greatest  causes  of  mortality  in  poults  is 
lice.  If  they  are  badly  infested  they  become  weaker  and 
weaker  and  finally  die.  Head  lice  are  perhaps  the  most 
serious.  These  are  found  burrowing  into  the  skin  on 
the  top  of  the  head  above  and  in  front  of  the  eyes  and 
under  the  throat.  If  they  are  discovered  it  is  necessary 
to  grease  these  places  carefully,  being  sure  not  to  use 
too  much  grease  as  this  in  itself  may  kill  the  poults. 
For  greasing  the  poults  ordinary  lard  can  be  used  to 
good  advantage  or  lard  to  which  has  been  added  a 
few  drops  of  kerosene.  A  drop  of  olive  oil  is  also  suitable 
for  this  purpose.  It  is.  best  to  grease  the  poults  on  a 
warm  day  or  during  the  warmth  of  the  day.  If  the  effort 
is  made  to  grease  them  when  it  is  cold  the  grease  does  not 
spread  to  as  good  advantage  and  one  is  more  likely  to  use 
too  much  grease. 

Frequently  quite  large  numbers  of  small  white  lice  are 
found  in  the  hollows  or  creases  between  the  quills  of  the 
main  wing  feathers.  While  these  are  harmful  to  the 
poults  and  must  be  gotten  rid  of,  they  are  not  as  serious 
as  the  head  lice.  A  little  grease  or  oil  applied  where  the 
lice  are  found  will  be  effective  in  getting  rid  of  them. 
Body  lice  such  as  occur  on  chickens  are  quite  common  to 
turkeys,  but  they  are  not  usually  found  on  the  young 
poults,  occurring  as  a  rule  after  they  are  half  grown.  For 
this  reason  they  are  not  as  serious  a  thing  as  the  head 
lice.  In  this  matter  of  lice  on  poults,  as  in  most  of  the 

92 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

other  factors  which  are  responsible  for  high  mortality 
among  young  turkeys,  there  is  no  reason  why  it  cannot 
be  largely  if  not  entirely  prevented,  by  proper  attention 
at  the  proper  time.  If  the  hen  is  dusted  with  some  good 
insect  powder  during  the  time  she  is  sitting,  as  has  been 
explained  before,  page  74,  there  should  be  little  if  any 
trouble  with  lice  on  the  poults  when  hatched.  Examina- 
tion of  the  newly  hatched  poults  at  frequent  intervals  for 
lice,  and  treatment  if  found,  must  not  be  overlooked.  See 
page  126. 

Marking  and  Pedigreeing  Turkeys 

It  is  often  desirable  to  mark  little  turkeys  in  some  dis- 
tinguishing manner.  The  need  for  this  may  be  that  the 
turkey  raiser  has  two  or  more  separate  matings  or  blood 
lines  and  he  desires  to  know  from  which  matings  his 
young  stock  came  in  order  to  guide  him  in  making  future 
matings.  For  this  purpose  the  young  turkeys  can  be 
marked  by  toe  punching  the  web  between  the  toes  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  chickens.  The  web  in  turkeys  is  not  so 
large  as  in  chickens,  but  by  using  care  room  enough  can  be 
found.  To  make  sure  that  the  punch  in  the  web  is  a  per- 
manent mark  go  over  the  poults  about  a  week  after  the 
punching  is  done.  If  any  punch  marks  show  signs  of 
growing  shut,  punch  them  out  again,  after  which  no 
difficulty  will  be  experienced. 

Poults  can  also  be  marked,  if  desired,  by  means  of 
numbered  open  pigeon  bands,  such  as  are  used  in  pedi- 
greeing  chickens,  which  are  put  around  the  leg  of  the 

93 


TURKEY  RAISING 

poults  when  hatched  and  in  four  or  five  weeks  transferred 
to  the  wings.  Colored  bands  can  also  be  used  for  this 
purpose,  but  will  require  changing  several  times  to  a 
larger  size  to  accommodate  the  growth  of  the  legs.  Per- 
manent marks  may  also  be  given  turkeys  by  clipping  off 
the  first  joint  of  the  toe,  the  joint  carrying  the  toe  nail. 
By  clipping  different  toes  for  different  matings,  a  record 
of  the  breeding  can  be  kept. 

Where  the  flock  of  turkeys  ranges  far  and  may  mix 
with  neighbors'  turkeys  it  is  desirable  to  mark  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  can  be  told  from  the  other  turkeys. 
This  will  prevent  disputes  as  to  ownership.  The  best 
plan,  of  course,  is  to  keep  the  turkeys  at  home  by  training 
them  to  come  home  each  night  to  roost.  See  page  98. 
Toe  marks  as  explained  above,  or  colored  or  numbered 
bands,  will  serve  to  identify  turkeys,  while  some  varieties, 
especially  whites,  can  be  easily  marked  by  using  a  dab  of 
colored  paint  or  dye  on  the  back  or  shoulders.  It  is  quite 
a  common  practice  for  neighbors  to  make  a  point  of 
keeping  different  varieties  of  turkeys  so  that  the  owner- 
ship of  the  birds  can  be  easily  established. 

Feathering  of  Poults 

When  first  hatched,  the  poults  like  baby  chicks  are 
covered  with  a  soft  down.  In  the  Bronze  variety  the 
poults  show  a  brown  color  over  the  back  with  two  paral- 
lel, dark  brown  stripes  running  from  the  head  over  the 
shoulders  and  back,  the  breast  being  of  a  yellowish  white 

94 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

color.  This  marking  is  similar  to  that  of  chicks  from 
partridge  matings.  Newly  hatched  black  turkey  poults 
are  only  partially  black,  the  entire  breast  being  white. 
Soon  after  hatching,  the  wing  feathers  begin  to  develop 
and  at  two  weeks  old  these  are  long  enough  to  extend 
back  of  the  rump  when  folded  and  they  cover  the  back, 
sides  and  rump.  At  about  10  days  old  feathers  begin 
to  appear  at  the  point  where  the  wings  join  the  body, 
and  this  feathering  gradually  extends  back  to  the  main 
wing  feathers  in  about  a  week.  In  about  three  weeks 
the  tail  feathers  begin  to  appear  and  should  be  about 
an  inch  long  at  the  end  of  the  first  month.  At  this 
time  the  poult  is  feathered  only  on  the  wings  and  tail,  but 
on  account  of  the  wing  feathering  covering  the  back,  the 
poult  appears  to  be  feathered  from  the  shoulders  to  the 
tail.  Occasional  poults  show  feathers  starting  down  the 
middle  of  the  back  between  the  shoulders  and  down  each 
side  of  the  breast  from  the  neck,  at  one  month  of  age. 
Frequently,  especially  where  poults  are  not  making  good 
growth,  the  wing  feathers  seem  to  be  unusually  long  as  in 
the  case  of  chicks  under  similar  circumstances,  so  that  they 
may  touch  or  nearly  touch  the  ground.  This  is  probably 
not  due  to  an  undue  growth  of  wing  feathers  but  to  a  poor 
growth  of  body.  At  any  rate  such  a  condition  gives  the 
poults  a  weak,  sickly,  discouraged  appearance. 

Some  turkey  raisers  feel  that  it  is  a  benefit  to  clip  off 
these  wing  feathers  and  that  by  so  doing  less  of  the 
strength  of  the  poult  goes  into  the  growth  of  the  feathers. 
It  is  a  question  whether  there  is  any  advantage  in  such  a 

95 


TURKEY  RAISING 

practice  although  the  poults  with  clipped  wings  seem  to 
get  around  better  and  to  keep  cleaner. 

Shooting  or  Throwing  the  Red 

At  four  weeks  of  age  no  trace  of  red  will  be  found 
on  the  heads  or  necks  of  the  poults.  At  five  weeks  the 
caruncles  begin  to  form  and  at  six  weeks  of  age  a  trace 
of  red  can  often  be  seen  in  the  caruncles  under  the 
feathery  down  of  the  neck,  and  the  down  begins  to  be 
shed  at  this  time  from  that  section  of  the  neck.  At  about 
seven  weeks  of  age  the  red  on  the  under  part  of  the 
neck  can  be  seen  at  some  distance,  particularly  in  the 
males,  but  does  not  become  easily  visible  on  the  females 
until  a  week  later.  Too  much  dependence,  however, 
should  not  be  placed  upon  being  able  to  differentiate  be- 
tween the  two  sexes  of  young  turkeys  at  this  time,  for 
it  is  only  by  a  very  careful  comparison  that  their  sex 
can  be  determined  under  three  months  of  age. 

The  appearance  of  the  red  on  the  head  and  neck  is 
oftentimes  termed  "shooting  the  red"  or  "throwing  the 
red,"  and  this  in  the  opinion  of  many  turkey  growers  is 
a  delicate  period.  At  this  time  the  young  turkeys  are 
inclined  to  be  somewhat  less  active  and  some  poults  may 
be  lost  at  this  stage. 

Distinguishing  the  Sexes 

At  the  age  of  about  three  months  there  appears  on 
the  breast  of  the  males  a  small  fleshy  protuberance.  It 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

is  from  this  protuberance  that  the  hair  starts  to  grow 
about  two  weeks  later  which  eventually  forms  the  tuft 
of  hair  on  the  breast  known  as  the  beard  or  tassel. 
While  the  beard  starts  growing  on  the  breast  of  the 
males  at  about  three  and  a  half  months,  the  females  do 
not  begin  to  grow  a  beard  until  they  are  about  one  year 
old.  At  this  age  the  beard  of  the  male  should  be  from 
3  to  5  inches  long  and  grows  longer  with  additional 
age.  Moreover,  the  beard  of  the  torn  is  much  coarser 
than  that  of  the  hen  and  at  any  particular  age  is  much 
longer.  The  feathers  on  the  neck  of  the  male  stop  far 
down  while  on  the  female  there  is  usually  a  light  growth 
of  feathers  extending  along  the  back  of  the  neck  to 
the  top  of  the  head  in  a  rather  narrow  strip. 

The  fleshy  protuberance  which  grows  just  above  the 
beak  and  which  is  sometimes  termed  the  dewbill  or  snout 
is  larger  and  more  elastic  in  the  male  than  in  the  female. 
In  toms  under  one  year  of  age  there  is  only  a  short  blunt 
knob  on  the  inside  of  the  shank.  As  the  bird  grows  older 
this  develops  into  a  stout  spur.  In  the  case  of  the  hen, 
however,  there  is  only  a  rudimentary  spur  or  small  button 
found.  In  the  torn  the  breast  bone  tends  to  be  more  or 
less  in  a  straight  line,  -while  in  the  hen  it  is  as  a  rule  curved 
to  a  greater  extent,  thus  forming  a  rounder  breast.  Of 
course  in  the  case  of  the  Bronze  and  Bourbon  Red,  the 
breast  and  body  feathers  of  the  female  are  tipped  with 
white,  while  the  feathers  of  the  male  show  n6  white  tip- 
ping in  these  sections. 

97 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Management  of  Growing  Turkeys 

As  soon  as  the  young  turkeys  are  six  weeks  old  they  are 
old  enough  to  go  to  roost.  Most  turkey  raisers  allow  the 
birds  to  roost  out  in  the  open  in  trees  or  on  fences.  Some 
turkey  raisers,  however,  build  roosts  especially  for  them. 
If  high  winds  are  prevalent  it  is  well  to  build  the  turkey 
roosts  next  to  the  barn  or  some  shed  which  will  afford  pro- 
tection from  the  wind.  It  is  natural  for  turkeys  to  roost 
high  and  it  is  well  therefore  to  construct  the  roosts  for 
them  set  up  on  posts  at  least  5  or  6  feet  from  the  ground. 
Often  they  are  built  higher  than  this,  sometimes  as  high  as 
8  or  10  feet.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  roosts  of  intermediate  height  or  cleated  runways 
by  means  of  which  the  younger  turkeys  can  get  up  to  the 
higher  roosts.  High  roosts  are  desirable  since  they  pro- 
tect the  birds  from  loss  due  to  foxes  or  coyotes.  In  sec- 
tions where  difficulty  is  experienced  owing  to  thefts  of 
turkeys,  it  is  well  to  construct  the  roosts  near  the  residence 
so  that  any  disturbance  can  be  heard.  Sometimes  a 
guinea  chick  or  two  is  raised  with  the  turkeys  and  will 
remain  and  roost  with  them.  If  there  is  any  disturbance 
during  the  night  the  guinea  will  make  a  great  uproar  and 
serve  as  an  alarm. 

It  is  possible  to  teach  the  young  turkeys  to  roost 
wherever  desired.  This  is  done  by  driving  them  up  to 
the  place  where  they  are  to  roost  and  feeding  them  there 
just  before  dark.  If  they  are  held  in  this  place  until  dusk 
falls  they  will  then  go  to  roost  on  the  places  provided  for 

98 


60 


O   en 

II 

£« 


BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

them.  By  repeating  this  a  few  times  the  turkeys  will 
learn  to  come  to  this  particular  spot  to  be  fed  and  will 
roost  on  the  roosts  provided  for  them  of  their  own 
accord. 

During  the  summer  and  the  early  part  of  the  fall  there 
is  a  great  abundance  of  feed  suitable  for  turkeys  which 
they  can  get  through  their  own  efforts  if  they  are  allowed 
to  range.  It  is  this  fact  which  makes  the  raising  of  tur- 
keys, after  they  have  passed  the  danger  point,  such  a 
simple  and  such  a  cheap  process.  The  feed  which  they 
are  able  to  secure  consists  of  the  various  weed  and  grass 
seeds,  the  grain  which  has  been  shelled  in  the  field,  green 
vegetation  and  all  kinds  of  insects,  especially  grasshoppers 
where  they  are  abundant.  In  parts  of  Texas,  wild  grapes 
are  plentiful  and  the  turkeys  eat  these  readily.  More- 
over, during  the  fall  the  turkeys  will  eat  quantities  of 
nuts  such  as  pecans,  beech  nuts  and  acorns  if  these  are 
available,  and  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  this  feed  they  will 
fatten  to  good  advantage  of  their  own  accord.  Where 
this  natural  feed  is  abundant,  therefore,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  provide  the  birds  with  any  other  feed  except  such  as 
may  be  given  them  each  night  in  order  to  teach  them  to 
come  home  to  roost. 

In  order  to  prevent,  insofar  as  possible,  the  trouble 
which  may  occur  due  to  the  turkey  flock  ranging  over  the 
neighbors'  farms,  it  may  in  some  cases  be  desirable  to 
feed  more  heavily  than  would  otherwise  be  done  in  order 
to  reduce  their  desire  for  ranging.  Even  with  this  pre- 
caution, however,  there  is  a  decided  tendency  for  them  to 

99 


TURKEY  RAISING 

range  a  long  way.  This  can  be  prevented  to  some  extent 
and  probably  most  effectively  by  driving  the  turkeys  into 
a  fenced  enclosure  such  as  might  be  used  for  a  breeding 
pen  in  the  spring  and  keeping  them  there  until  about 
noon.  During  the  warm  weather  the  turkeys  do  most 
of  their  ranging  in  the  morning.  During  the  heat  of  the 
day  they  are  inclined  to  stay  in  the  shade  and  not  range 
very  far.  By  confining  them  during  the  morning,  there- 
fore, they  will  not  start  ranging  until  late  in  the  afternoon 
and  are  not  likely  to  go  very  far.  If  the  practice  is  made 
of  feeding  the  turkeys  each  morning  in  the  pen  where 
they  are  to  be  confined,  they  will  go  there  of  their  own  ac- 
cord when  they  come  down  from  the  roosts  and  no  great 
trouble  will  ensue  in  shutting  them  up.  Clipping  the  flight 
feathers  of  one  wing  will  prevent  them  from  flying  out  of 
the  pen. 

It  may  sometimes  pay,  if  a  considerable  flock  of  tur- 
keys is  reared,  to  hire  a  boy  or  two  to  herd  the  birds. 
This  will  make  it  possible  to  protect  the  flocks  from  the 
attacks  of  any  animals  and  will  also  prevent  any  difficulty 
from  the  birds  going  on  neighbors'  farms  without  per- 
mission. It  also  makes  it  possible  to  drive  the  birds  and 
keep  them  in  any  particular  field  where  the  insects  may 
be  bad  and  where  they  can  do  the  most  good.  With  some- 
one to  look  after  the  flock  of  turkeys  and  keep  them 
within  bounds,  there  will  often  be  calls  from  the  neigh- 
bors for  the  flock  to  be  turned  into  fields  where  they  are 
having  trouble  with  grasshoppers  or  other  insects,  and 

100 


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BROODING  AND  REARING  YOUNG  STOCK 

this  provides  additional  room  and  sources  of  food  supply 
for  the  flock. 

It  is  desirable  to  arrange  the  hatching  in  such  a  way 
that  two  or  three  turkey  hens  with  broods  of  about  the 
same  age  can  be  turned  out  to  free  range  at  the  same  time. 
If  they  are  turned  out  together  in  this  manner  they  usu- 
ally remain  in  one  flock,  which  makes  it  easier  to  hunt 
them  up  and  care  for  them  than  would  be  the  case  if  each 
brood  was  by  itself.  It  is  not,  however,  desirable  to  turn 
more  than  two  or  three  broods  into  one  flock  as  there  is  a 
tendency  for  the  poults  all  to  try  to  crowd  under  one  or 
two  hens  to  be  hovered,  with  the  result  that  this  is  not 
properly  accomplished.  Occasionally  one  or  more  hens 
has  a  bell  hung  around  its  neck.  This  serves  a  useful 
purpose  in  making  it  easier  to  locate  the  flock  of  turkeys 
at  night  when  they  are  to  be  driven  home  or  at  any  other 
time  when  it  is  desired  to  find  them.  The  young  turkeys 
usually  remain  with  their  mother  until  October  or  No- 
vember, when  they  are  weaned.  At  this  time  the  males 
usually  separate  from  the  females  and  range  by  them- 
selves. 


101 


CHAPTER  VI 

Marketing 

Time  of  Marketing. — The  two  principal  times  of  year 
when  turkeys  are  in  great  demand  are  the  Thanksgiving 
and  Christmas  holiday  seasons.  It  is  at  this  time  that  the 
great  majority  of  turkeys  is  shipped  to  market  as  the  de- 
mand for  this  class  of  poultry  is  especially  heavy.  Tur- 
keys in  lesser  quantities  are  shipped  to  market  at  other 
seasons,  but  compared  with  the  Thanksgiving  and  Christ- 
mas trade  this  casual  shipment  is  of  very  minor  volume 
and  goes  principally  to  supply  hotel  and  restaurant  trade. 
Usually  there  is  more  or  less  of  a  surplus  of  turkeys  for 
the  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  markets  accumulating 
between  these  two  dates,  which  is  put  into  cold  storage 
and  is  later  withdrawn  as  the  demand  occasions,  largely 
to  supply  hotel  and  restaurant  trade. 

Size  of  Young  Turkeys. — Where  some  standard  vari- 
ety is  kept  and  where  the  stock  is  strong  and  vigorous 
and  the  youngsters  have  been  given  an  opportunity  to 
make  good  growth,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  getting 
cockerels  to  weigh  15  to  20  pounds  and  pullets  12  to  14 
pounds  for  the  Thanksgiving  market,  or  in  other  words 
at  an  age  of  five  to  six  months.  Many  of  the  ordinary 
mongrel  flocks  will  of  course  fail  to  reach  these  weights, 

1 02 


MARKETING 

while  occasional  individuals  of  any  of  the  standard  varie- 
ties will  also  prove  to  be  small  or  slow  growers. 

Principal  Markets  and  Market  Demands 

The  principal  markets  are,  of  course,  the  large  cities. 
The  highest  priced  markets  are  those  of  the  large  cities  of 
the  East  such  as  New  York,  Boston  and  Philadelphia. 
There  are  no  special  demands  for  particular  classes  of  tur- 
keys other  than  the  fact  that  a  medium-sized  bird  is  in  gen- 
eral in  greater  demand  than  the  larger  birds.  As  these 
latter  are  suitable  only  for  exceptionally  large  families  or 
for  hotel  or  restaurant  trade  after  the  Thanksgiving  and 
Christmas  holidays  the  demand  for  larger  birds  is  not 
nearly  so  good  and  for  this  reason  any  exceptionally  large 
fowls  should  be  shipped  for  one  or  other  of  these  occa- 
sions. Occasionally  there  is  a  demand  for  turkey  broilers, 
that  is,  young  turkeys  weighing  two  or  three  pounds,  but 
this  demand  is  very  limited  and  the  supply  of  turkeys 
which  will  be  sold  at  this  age  is  also  very  small.  It  will 
ordinarily  pay  the  turkey  grower  better  to  raise  his  tur- 
keys to  a  larger  size  than  to  turn  them  off  as  broilers. 
Sometimes  late  hatched  birds  can  be  disposed  of  in  this 
manner  to  good  advantage. 

Most  of  the  markets  prefer  dry  picked  turkeys  and 
while  most  consumers  prefer  a  yellow  carcass,  still  the 
color  of  the  skin  and  legs  has  little  or  no  effect  on  the 
market  demand.  In  this  connection  it  might  be  stated 
that  the  Black  turkey,  contrary  to  the  expectation  of  many 

103 


TURKEY  RAISING 

people,  dresses  out  into  a  nice  plump  yellow  carcass.  Most 
of  the  markets  at  the  present  time  demand  dressed  tur- 
keys to  be  picked  clean,  although  there  is  a  considerable 
demand  for  birds  in  which  the  largest  feathers  after  the 
flights  are  pulled,  that  is,  the  flight  coverts,  have  been  left 
on  the  last  joint  of  the  wings.  This  demand  has  grown 
up  from  the  custom  of  cutting  off  the  last  joint  of  the 
wing  and  using  it  for  a  brush  about  the  kitchen. 

There  is  also  a  very  limited  demand  for  turkeys  to  be 
marketed  with  the  feathers  on.  This  is  true  especially 
with  large  toms.  These  birds  are  utilized  for  hanging 
out  in  front  of  restaurants  or  retail  shops.  If  the  turkey 
grower  makes  any  effort  to  dress  turkeys  for  the  market 
he  should  get  in  touch  with  the  dealer  through  whom  he 
expects  to  market  in  order  to  learn  what  the  preferences 
are  with  respect  to  the  manner  of  dressing. 

Fattening  Turkeys 

The  usual  custom  in  fattening  turkeys  for  the  market 
is  to  begin  to  feed  them  heavily  about  November  i.  The 
results  of  this  are  not  the  best.  Beginning  to  feed  heavily 
at  this  date  without  accustoming  the  birds  gradually  to 
the  heavy  feeding  is  likely  to  cause  scours  or  bowel 
trouble  with  the  result  that  the  birds  get  out  of  con- 
dition and  do  not  fatten  as  well  as  expected.  Another 
difficulty  caused  by  the  heavy  feeding  at  this  time  is 
the  prevalent  custom  of  using  new  corn.  If  the  birds 
are  gradually  accustomed  to  new  corn  they  can  be  fed 

104 


MARKETING 

on  it  quite  heavily  without  bad  results,  but  to  feed  it 
in  considerable  quantities  at  the  start  is  very  likely  to 
cause  scours. 

A  better  practice  in  fattening  is  to  begin  feeding  for 
this  purpose  at  night  and  morning  about  October  i.  At 
first  the  feeds  should  be  light  so  that  the  birds  will  go 
away  feeling  a  little  hungry.  As  they  become  used  to 
being  fed  the  amount  can  be  gradually  increased  until  dur- 
ing the  week  previous  to  sending  them  to  the  market  they 
can  be  given  all  they  will  eat  up  three  times  a  day.  Corn 
is  the  grain  which  is  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose 
and  is  excellent  especially  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
feeding  when  the  weather  is  cooler.  Some  turkey  raisers 
feed  wheat  and  oats  during  the  first  part  of  the  fattening 
period  and  gradually  change  to  corn  with  the  cooler 
weather.  It  will  be  found  that  not  all  turkeys  are  fat- 
tened with  equal  facility  and  the  usual  practice  is  to  pick 
out  the  birds  which  have  fattened  and  are  in  pretty  good 
shape  for  sending  to  the  Thanksgiving  market  and  to  con- 
tinue to  feed  the  others  in  order  to  get  them  in  better 
shape  for  the  Christmas  market.  Sometimes  also  it  is 
good  policy  for  the  turkey  raisers  if  they  have  lots  of 
feed  on  hand  and  if  their  turkeys  are  a  little  late  or  not 
in  prime  condition,  to  hold  them  over  past  the  Thanks- 
giving market  so  as  to  have  a  longer  fattening  period  to 
put  them  in  better  condition.  As  a  rule  more  attention 
is  paid  to  fattening  and  finishing  the  turkeys  by  the  rais- 
ers in  the  North.  As  a  result  of  this  the  southern  turkeys 
are  inclined  to  run  poorer  in  quality  and  it  is  for  this 

105 


TURKEY  RAISING 

reason  that  the  northern  raised  turkey  is  in  better  repute 
on  the  market. 

While  the  turkeys  in  the  best  condition  for  marketing 
should  be  selected  to  send  to  the  Thanksgiving  and  Christ- 
mas markets,  it  is  necessary  here  for  the  turkey  raiser  to 
use  judgment  in  not  selecting  all  of  the  best  birds  of  the 
flock  for  this  purpose.  In  other  words,  he  should  pick 
out  the  strongest,  most  vigorous,  best  grown,  early  ma- 
turing birds  to  reserve  as  breeders.  Failure  to  do  this  and 
to  send  all  such  birds  to  the  market  simply  because  they 
are  in  condition  will  result  in  his  having  a  lot  of  small, 
less  thrifty,  late  maturing  birds  left  for  breeders,  and  this 
will  of  course  lead  to  deterioration  in  his  flock. 

Sometimes  the  effort  is  made  to  fatten  the  turkeys  by 
penning  them  in  a  relatively  small  enclosure  and  feeding 
them  there  with  the  idea  that  by  preventing  their  ranging 
they  will  not  use  up  so  much  of  their  energy  in  this  way 
and  more  of  the  feed  will  go  to  flesh.  While  turkeys 
penned  in  this  manner  usually  eat  well  for  a  day  or  two, 
after  a  few  days  they  are  likely  to  go  off  their  feed,  lose 
their  appetites  and  lose  flesh  rather  than  gain  it.  For 
this  reason  it  is  not  well  as  a  rule  to  attempt  to  pen  the 
turkeys  when  fattening  them,  but  they  should  rather  be 
allowed  to  continue  on  free  range  where  they  will  keep 
in  better  condition  and  will  be  eager  for  their  feed  and, 
therefore,  more  inclined  to  fatten  to  good  advantage. 

Where  turkeys  have  free  range  under  conditions  where 
there  are  large  quantities  of  nuts  such  as  beech  nuts,  chest- 
nuts, pecans  and  acorns,  little  attention  need  be  given  to 

106 


MARKETING 

fattening  the  turkeys.  With  an  abundance  of  material 
of  this  sort  the  turkeys  will  fatten  themselves  and  can  be 
marketed  in  fairly  good  condition. 

Caponizing 

As  a  class  the  young  males  are  harder  to  fatten  than 
the  females.  They  are  especially  hard  to  get  in  good 
market  condition  by  Thanksgiving  time.  This  is  due 
in  part  to  the  fact  that  they  have  larger  frames  and  that 
it  requires  a  longer  feeding  period  to  flesh  them  in  good 
shape.  It  is  likewise  due  to  the  fact  that  the  young 
males  are  inclined  to  separate  from  the  flock  and  to  range 
by  themselves  over  a  much  wider  area,  and  this  increased 
activity  on  their  part  makes  them  more  difficult  to  fatten. 
While  caponizing  has  never  been  practiced  to  any  great 
extent  on  turkeys  it  is  no  more  difficult  an  operation  than 
is  the  case  with  common  fowls  and  is  performed  in  the 
same  manner  and  with  the  same  instruments.  The  result 
of  the  operation  is  to  render  the  males  quieter  in  disposi- 
tion. They  do  not  gobble  or  strut.  It  is  probable  that 
on  account  of  the  quieting  effect  it  has  on  them  that  they 
would  not  be  inclined  to  separate  from  the  flock,  as  do  the 
uncaponized  males,  and  that  they  would  not,  therefore, 
range  so  far.  For  this  reason  it  would  probably  be  some- 
what easier  to  fatten  the  turkey  capons,  especially  in  time 
for  the  Thanksgiving  market.  Uncaponized  young  toms 
are  as  a  rule  in  much  better  condition  in  January  than 
they  are  in  November. 

107 


TURKEY  RAISING 

Selling  Turkeys  Alive 

The  majority  of  turkey  raisers  sell  their  birds  alive. 
This  is  true  in  practically  all  cases  except  for  local  trade, 
and  in  some  sections  of  the  country  where  the  areas  of 
production  are  situated  fairly  close  to  the  large  markets 
such,  for  example,  as  New  England  and  New  York  State. 
The  usual  manner  of  selling  is  for  the  producer  to  ship 
his  turkeys  by  express  if  he  is  fairly  close  to  a  good 
market  and  the  number  of  birds  he  has  to  handle  rela- 
tively few,  to  sell  them  to  a  poultry  produce  concern  or 
poultry  buyer  in  the  nearby  village,  or  to  sell  them  to 
turkey  buyers  who  may  visit  his  farm.  The  size  of 
coop  used  for  shipping  turkeys  alive  varies  greatly.  In 
some  states  the  law  requires  that  the  coops  be  not  less 
than  2  feet  high  in  order  to  make  them  more  comfortable 
for  the  turkeys.  Many  shippers,  however,  use  coops 
which  are  1 6  to  20  inches  high,  and  if  anything,  the  tur- 
keys will  go  through  in  coops  of  this  height  with  less 
loss  than  in  the  higher  coops,  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
is  impossible  for  the  birds  to  get  on  top  of  one  another. 
A  cheap,  simply  constructed  coop  often  used  is  one  2 
feet  4  inches  wide,  3  feet  10  inches  long,  and  19  inches 
high,  constructed  with  a  solid  wooden  bottom  and  with 
a  wooden  frame  covered  with  wire.  This  coop  is  divided 
into  two  sections  by  means  of  a  partition  in  the  center. 
If  desired,  the  coop  can,  of  course,  be  made  higher  than 
this. 

In  the  sections  of  the  country  such  as  the  Middle  West 

108 


FIG.  31.  Turkey  capon  at  six  months  of  age.  Notice  the  fem- 
inine appearance  and  the  big  frame.  (Photograph  from  the  Bu- 
reau of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


§.1 


MARKETING 

and  Texas  where  the  bulk  of  the  turkeys  are  grown,  there 
are  poultry  packing  houses  which  are  prepared  to  handle 
and  which  do  handle  large  quantities  of  turkeys  at  the 
proper  season,  busying  themselves  with  chickens  and  eggs 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  These  are  concentrat- 
ing points  for  the  live  turkeys  and  here  they  are  either 
dressed,  which  is  the  usual  procedure,  or  else  shipped  to 
market  alive  in  car  lots.  In  sections  like  Texas,  where 
turkeys  are  plentiful,  it  is  quite  a  prevalent  custom  for 
hucksters  to  go  out  through  the  country  buying  turkeys 
from  the  farmers,  adding  them  to  their  flock  and  driving 
the  flock  along  the  roads  until  they  reach  the  killing  sta- 
tion or  concentration  point.  In  this  way  flocks  of  tur- 
keys are  often  gathered  together  running  to  more  than 
1,000  in  number. 

In  the  season  of  1912  there  were  gathered  in  this  way 
8,000  turkeys  which  were  concentrated  at  Myersville, 
Tex.,  and  driven  from  this  point  to  Cuero,  Tex.,  a  dis- 
tance of  13  miles.  This  drive  from  Myersville  to  Cuero 
was  accomplished  in  two  days  with  the  aid  of  30  men. 
Smaller  flocks  can  of  course  be  driven  more  rapidly.  A 
flock  of  700  turkeys  was  driven  over  this  same  distance 
in  8^2  hours,  five  men  being  employed  in  the  drive.  It 
is  usual  to  make  use  of  a  team  and  wagon  in  connection 
with  these  drives,  the  wagon  going  on  in  front  and  the 
driver  throwing  out  a  little  corn  from  time  to  time  in 
order  to  get  the  birds  to  follow.  Such  a  wagon  is  also 
useful  for  picking  up  and  hauling  the  rest  of  the  way 
any  birds  which  become  lame  or  tired  or  which  cannot 

109 


TURKEY  RAISING 

keep  up  on  account  of  being  very  fat.  Where  the  flocks 
are  driven  over  a  period  of  several  days  it  is  necessary 
when  night  comes  on  to  pick  a  spot  in  a  grove  or  some 
similar  place  where  there  are  plenty  of  trees  for  the  birds 
to  roost.  When  darkness  comes  the  turkeys  will  start 
going  to  roost  wherever  they  may  be  and  it  is  necessary  to 
select  a  place  where  they  can  be  kept  together  and  easily 
guarded.  When  the  drive  arrives  at  the  killing  station 
the  birds  are  weighed  up  and  driven  into  pens  from  which 
they  are  drawn  for  killing  or  to  fill  cars  for  shipment  alive. 

Killing  and  Dressing 

Turkeys  should  be  killed  and  dressed  as  soon  after  they 
arrive  at  the  killing  station  as  possible.  On  account  of 
their  free  roaming  nature  turkeys  do  not  stand  confine- 
ment well  and  when  shut  in  coops  under  conditions  to 
which  they  are  not  used,  they  shrink  in  weight  rapidly. 
It  is  to  avoid  this  shrinkage  that  the  killing  should  be 
done  promptly. 

Practically  all  turkeys  are  dry  picked.  This  is  done 
partly  because  the  market  demands  dry  picked  birds  and 
partly  because  the  feathers  are  valuable  and  are  saved  to 
sell.  Scalding  injures  the  feathers.  Turkeys  are  loose- 
feathered  birds  and  are  easier  to  dry  pick  than  any  other 
class  of  fowl  unless  it  be  pheasants.  In  this  connection 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  experienced  pickers  always 
seem  to  choose  the  dark-colored  turkeys  in  preference  to 
the  white  ones  as  being  easier  to  pick,  claiming  that  the 

no 


FIG.  33.  Woman  dry  picking  a  turkey.  Notice  the  blood  can 
and  also  the  convenient  means  of  hanging  the  turkey  in  position 
by  slipping  its  legs  into  the  slots  cut  in  the  scantling.  (Photo- 
graph from  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.) 


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MARKETING 

feathers  of  the  white  variety  do  not  mature  or  ripen  so 
early. 

The  usual  procedure  in  a  turkey  killing  plant  is  to  put 
15  or  20  turkeys  in  a  cage  for  a  picker  to  draw  his  birds 
from.  The  picker  selects  a  bird,  takes  it  out  of  the  cage, 
hangs  it  up  by  the  feet  by  means  of  a  cord,  then  proceeds 
to  bleed  and  stick.  Often  two  cords  are  used  for  hanging 
up  the  bird,  a  cord  being  placed  about  each  foot.  Instead 
of  cords  wire  shackles  are  also  made,  having  a  place  in 
which  each  foot  can  be  easily  slipped.  The  use  of  such  a 
shackle  saves  time  and  also  holds  the  legs  in  such  a  posi- 
tion as  to  make  picking  easier.  The  bleeding  is  accom- 
plished by  cutting  the  veins  in  the  throat  just  at  the  rear 
edge  of  the  skull.  A  cut  properly  made  at  this  point  will 
result  in  free  bleeding.  The  picker  then  sticks  the  bird, 
that  is,  plunges  the  knife  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
to  a  point  between  and  a  little  back  of  the  eyes,  or  this 
same  point  may  be  reached  by  a  stick  from  the  outside 
starting  the  point  of  the  knife  just  under  the  eye.  A  very 
good  knife  for  this  purpose  is  one  made  from  a  single  flat 
piece  of  steel  about  1/16  inch  thick,  with  a  handle  5  inches 
inches  long  and  J4  inch  wide.  The  blade  should  be  2^/2 
inches  long  and  J4  inch  wide,  ground  to  a  point  and 
sharpened  to  a  straight  cutting  edge  on  the  inner  side. 
For  best  results  this  knife  must  be  kept  very  sharp.  When 
the  knife  reaches  the  brain  which  is  the  object  of  the  stick, 
the  picker  usually  turns  it  somewhat,  which  causes  a  con- 
vulsion of  the  muscles.  If  the  stick  is  good  in  this  re- 
spect the  feathers  will  then  come  out  easily.  As  soon  as 

III 


TURKEY  RAISING 

the  stick  is  made  a  blood  can,  weighted  with  lead  or  some 
other  heavy  material,  is  fastened  by  means  of  a  wire  hook 
into  the  lower  jaw  of  the  bird  to  keep  the  bird's  head 
down  and  to  receive  the  drip  of  blood. 

Turkeys  are  frequently  killed  by  bleeding  only,  that  is 
to  say,  without  following  the  bleeding  by  sticking.  This 
manner  of  killing  usually  results  in  a  better  bled  bird  but 
does  not  make  picking  as  easy.  In  some  states  the  law 
requires  that  if  a  bird  is  killed  by  bleeding  only  it  must 
first  be  stunned  by  hitting  it  on  the  back  of  the  head  with 
a  club.  Good  bleeding  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  a 
carcass  which  looks  well  and  which  keeps  well. 

The  picker  first  removes  the  main  tail  feathers  with  one 
motion  and  next  the  main  wing  feathers.  These  large 
feathers  are  put  in  a  separate  bin  from  the  body  feathers. 
The  next  operation  is  to  pick  off  the  body  feathers  which 
is  accomplished  very  rapidly  by  expert  pickers.  In  the 
special  turkey-dressing  establishments  it  is  common  prac- 
tice to  have  the  shackle,  by  means  of  which  the  bird  is 
hung,  mounted  on  a  track.  After  the  bird  is  stuck  the 
shackle  is  wheeled  over  a  barrel  or  bin  in  which  the  main 
tail  and  wing  feathers  are  allowed  to  fall.  It  is  then 
moved  over  another  bin  into  which  the  body  feathers  are 
allowed  to  fall.  This  makes  the  separation  of  the  two 
classes  of  feathers  easy.  As  soon  as  the  body  feathers  are 
removed  the  picker  then  goes  over  the  bird  carefully  to 
remove  the  pin  feathers.  Pickers  become  very  expert  and 
can  entirely  finish  a  bird  in  a  few  minutes.  In  Texas  a 
good  many  negroes  and  Mexicans  are  employed  for  this 

112 


MARKETING 

purpose.  In  other  places  the  best  pickers  are  white  men. 
Women  are  also  employed  to  a  large  extent  in  picking, 
especially  for  pinning  or  finishing  up  the  birds.  The  price 
paid  for  picking  runs  about  4  cents  apiece  for  hen  turkeys 
and  5  cents  for  toms.  After  the  bird  is  thoroughly 
picked,  the  blood  is  washed  from  the  head,  and  the  feet 
are  also  washed  if  very  dirty,  and  it  is  laid  on  a  rack  with 
other  dressed  birds. 

When  the  rack  is  filled  it  is  wheeled  into  a  cold  storage 
room  where  the  temperature  is  a  little  above  freezing. 
The  turkeys  are  left  in  this  room  until  the  body  heat  is 
thoroughly  out  of  the  birds.  This  may  take  from  12  to 
24  hours.  When  the  birds  are  thoroughly  cooled  they  are 
graded  according  to  size  and  condition  and  are  packed  in 
suitable  containers  for  shipping  to  market. 

Packing 

Turkeys  are  put  up  in  two  ways:  either  in  boxes  or 
barrels.  Probably  there  are  more  barrel  turkeys  than 
box  turkeys,  although  boxes  are  used  very  largely  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  markets  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
other  markets.  Both  barrels  and  boxes  are  lined  with 
clean  wrapping  paper  or  parchment  paper  and  the  heads 
of  the  turkeys  are  likewise  wrapped  with  clean  paper. 
White  lumber  such  as  cottonwood  is  the  kind  favored  for 
making  the  barrels  and  boxes.  It  is  said  that  pine  will 
impart  a  flavor  and  odor  to  poultry  when  packed  in  it. 
Where  turkeys  are  packed  in  barrels  there  are  as  a  rule 


TURKEY  RAISING 

six  layers  of  hen  turkeys  with  five  hens  to  the  layer  and 
four  or  five  layers  of  toms  with  four  to  the  layer,  this  of 
course  depending  on  the  size  of  the  birds.  On  the  aver- 
age a  barrel  will  hold  about  250  pounds  of  turkey. 

There  are  two  principal  sizes  of  boxes  used  for  packing 
turkeys,  one  used  for  hens  and  the  other  for  toms.  The 
standard  dimensions  for  these  boxes  are  as  follows :  Tur- 
key torn  boxes,  ends  24  x  12  x  ^  inches ;  sides  28  x  12  x 
%  ;  tops  and  bottoms  28  x  24^  x  ^ ;  turkey  hen  boxes, 
ends  20  x  1 1  x  %  inches ;  sides  30  x  1 1  x  y%  inches ;  tops 
and  bottoms,  30  x  20^4  x  ^  inches. 

The  turkeys  are  packed  in  these  boxes  in  two  layers, 
the  torn  boxes  holding  layers  of  six  each  or  12  to  the  box, 
while  the  hen  boxes  hold  layers  of  eight  each  or  16  to  the 
box.  The  boxes  make  a  much  neater  package  than  do  the 
barrels  and  it  is  also  possible  to  pack  the  turkeys  in  them 
in  better  shape  as  they  do  not  have  to  be  doubled  up  as  is 
done  when  packed  in  barrels.  It  is  claimed,  however,  that 
the  cost  of  packing  in  boxes  is  about  a  half  cent  per  pound 
more  than  packing  in  barrels.  After  the  turkeys  are 
packed,  the  box  or  barrel  should  be  plainly  marked  with 
the  number  and  kind  of  turkeys  which  it  contains  and 
with  the  gross,  tare  and  net  weight. 

After  the  turkeys  are  packed  either  in  barrels  or  boxes 
they  are  put  into  what  is  called  the  sharp  freezer,  that  is 
to  say,  a  cold-storage  room  where  the  temperature  is  con- 
siderably below  freezing.  Here  they  are  frozen  solid  and 
held  until  they  are  to  be  shipped.  They  are  shipped  in  re- 

114 


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frigerator  cars  each  of  which  will  hold  from  20,000  to 
25,000  pounds  of  dressed  poultry. 

Turkey  Feathers 

In  plucking  the  turkeys  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  are 
kept  separate  in  one  bin  and  the  soft  body  feathers  in 
another  bin.  The  wing  and  tail  feathers  are  referred 
to  in  the  trade  as  quills.  Various  other  trade  names  are 
applied  to  different  grades  of  these  feathers.  At  times, 
depending  upon  the  demand,  white  body  feathers  and 
white  quills  are  worth  considerably  more  money  than 
the  dark  or  mixed  feathers  and,  for  this  reason,  the 
white  feathers  are  kept  separate  in  many  establishments. 

Scalded  feathers  are  not  worth  as  much  as  dry  picked 
feathers.  Likewise,  feathers  which  are  freshly  packed 
and  therefore  damp,  not  having  been  given  a  chance  to 
dry  out,  are  likely  to  arrive  at  their  destination  matted 
and  musty  or  heated.  Such  feathers  are  not  worth  as 
much  and  are  discounted  according  to  their  condition. 

Turkey  feathers  have  a  variety  of  uses,  the  demand  for 
the  different  classes  of  feathers  and  for  the  various  uses 
depending  to  quite  an  extent  upon  prevailing  fashions. 
At  certain  times  the  white  quills  are  in  active  demand  for 
millinery  purposes  while  at  other  times,  white  quills  are 
almost  a  drug  on  the  market  and  must  be  mixed  with  dark 
quills  in  order  to  sell  them  to  concerns  which  manufacture 
feather  dusters.  Practically  all  dark  quills  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  feather  dusters,  these  being  split  and 


TURKEY  RAISING 

milled  by  machinery.  At  times,  especially  when  feather 
boas  are  in  fashion,  the  white  turkey  body  feathers  are  in 
considerable  demand  for  this  purpose  and  the  price  runs 
much  higher  than  at  other  times.  Dark  body  feathers 
and  also  white  body  feathers  when  not  in  special  demand 
for  other  purposes  are  used  mainly  in  making  feather 
beds  and  pillows. 

The  prices  paid  for  feathers  not  only  vary  quite  widely 
according  to  their  kind,  color  and  condition,  but  also  at 
different  times  of  the  year  and  in  different  sections  of  the 
country  due  to  the  changes  in  fashion  in  women's  dress. 
The  quotations  given  herewith  represent  the  range  of 
prices  paid  at  three  different  points  during  March,  1920: 

Dark  turkey  body  feathers,  full 

fleece .  .20  to  55  cents  a  pound 

White  turkey  body  feathers,  full 

fleece 45  to  80  cents  a  pound 

Dark  turkey  quills 10  to  13  cents  a  pound 

White  turkey  quills .10  to  25  cents  a  pound 

In  the  case  of  any  mixture  of  feathers  either  of  class, 
grade  or  color,  the  feathers  as  a  whole  will  bring  only  the 
price  of  the  cheapest  feathers  in  the  mixture. 

All  turkey  feathers  will  heat  if  sacked  for  shipment 
before  being  thoroughly  aired  and  dried.  Even  though 
they  are  apparently  dry,  they  will  become  warm  and  damp 
again  in  a  short  time  when  sacked,  unless  the  animal  heat 
has  been  thoroughly  removed.  To  dry  them  spread  them 

116 


MARKETING 

out  on  a  clean  floor,  such  as  a  loft  above  the  killing  and 
picking  room,  in  a  layer  not  over  4  to  6  inches  deep  and 
turn  them  each  day  until  they  are  dry,  giving  them  plenty 
of  air.  Turkey  quills,  particularly  tails,  should  also  be 
thoroughly  aired  before  packing  as  only  dry  quills  bring 
the  top  price  for  this  class  of  feathers.  The  body  feath- 
ers should  be  packed  in  sacks  for  shipment.  Packed  in 
this  way,  the  freight  rate  is  one  and  a  half  times  first 
class.  If  shipped  in  boxes  or  barrels,  they  take  double 
first-class  rate.  Quills  should  be  laid  straight  in  boxes  or 
bags  for  shipment.  If  they  are  stuffed  carelessly  in  bags 
they  are  broken  to  some  extent.  If  good  sacks  are  used 
and  care  is  taken  to  lay  the  quills  in  them  as  straight  as 
possible,  they  can  be  shipped  in  this  way  fairly  satisfac- 
torily, although  they  will  not  go  through  in  as  good  shape 
as  when  packed  in  boxes.  Like  the  body  feathers,  when 
shipped  in  barrels  or  boxes  they  take  a  double  first-class 
rate,  while  in  bags  they  take  one  and  a  half  times  first 
class. 

Dressing  on  the  Farm 

For  local  trade,  or  in  certain  sections  within  easy  ship- 
ping distance  of  some  of  the  larger  markets  and  where 
considerable  numbers  of  turkeys  are  raised  in  a  small 
area,  it  is  common  practice  to  dress  the  turkeys  on  the 
farm.  This  is  done  in  sections  of  the  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  states  where  the  birds  are  either  sold 
direct  to  the  consumer,  to  city  dealers,  or  to  buyers  who 
come  into  the  locality.  In  Heuvelton  and  Lisbon,  N.  Y., 

117 


TURKEY  RAISING 

for  example,  there  is  held  each  year  shortly  before 
Thanksgiving,  a  turkey  day.  On  the  day  before  this 
event  the  farmers  kill  and  dress  their  turkeys,  using 
the  same  methods  as  are  employed  in  the  packing  plants 
except  that  the  birds  are  allowed  to  cool  by  hanging  them 
out  over  night,  provided  the  weather  is  cool  enough  to 
reduce  their  temperature  to  about  35  degrees.  If  the 
weather  is  not  cool  enough  for  this  purpose  they  are 
put  into  ice  water  and  cooled  in  this  manner. 

Care  must  be  taken  in  cooling  turkeys  by  hanging  them 
outdoors  to  see  that  the  temperature  is  not  so  severe  that 
the  turkeys  will  freeze  on  the  outside  before  the  body 
heat  has  left  the  interior  of  the  birds,  as  this  will  cause 
them  to  spoil  rather  quickly.  The  turkeys  to  be  killed 
should  not  be  fed  on  that  day  or  the  previous  night,  ex- 
cept the  little  that  may  be  necessary  to  entice  them  into 
the  barn  or  some  other  building  to  catch  them.  Feeding 
before  slaughter  causes  the  crop  to  be  distended  with  feed 
and  makes  an  unsightly  carcass.  On  the  next  day  the 
farmers  bring  their  dressed  turkeys  into  the  town  by 
wagon.  A  number  of  turkey  buyers  representing  differ- 
ent concerns  are  present  and  they  bid  for  and  buy  the  tur- 
keys at  the  street  curb. 

In  a  general  way  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  hazardous  for 
the  farmer  to  attempt  to  dress  and  ship  his  turkeys  to 
market,  since  with  small  lots  he  does  not  have  refrigerator 
facilities  and  since  he  usually  makes  no  effort  to  ice  his 
turkeys.  If  the  weather  happens  to  turn  warm  or  if  the 
shipment  is  delayed,  there  is  a  grave  chance  of  the  birds 

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MARKETING 

arriving  at  market  in  bad  condition.  If  the  turkey  grower 
desires  to  dress  and  ship  turkeys  it  is  best  to  pack  them  in 
a  barrel,  alternating  each  layer  of  turkeys  with  a  layer  of 
ice.  In  this  condition  the  turkeys  have  a  much  better 
chance  to  come  through  in  good  shape. 

It  is  sometimes  advisable  for  the  turkey  grower  when 
taking  advantage  of  an  opportunity  to  retail  his  birds, 
not  only  to  kill  and  pluck  them,  but  to  draw  them  as  well. 
Whether  or  not  this  should  be  done  will  depend  entirely 
upon  the  trade  which  he  has  and  the  demands  which  are 
made  on  him  for  this  work.  Usually  the  drawing  which 
is  done  by  the  grower  consists  simply  in  cutting  around 
the  anus  and  in  drawing  the  intestine  out  through  the  hole 
thus  made  until  the  gizzard  is  reached  when  it  is  broken 
off.  It  is  seldom  desirable  to  remove  the  other  organs  or 
to  attempt  to  remove  the  crop  unless  the  crop  is  filled  with 
feed  and  as  a  result  is  likely  to  turn  dark  in  color  and 
spoil  the  appearance  of  the  bird. 

Shipping  Turkeys  Alive 

Turkeys  are  shipped  alive  either  in  small  lots  by  ex- 
press, where  the  distance  from  the  farm  to  the  market 
is  not  great,  or  in  large  lots  by  freight  where  they  can 
be  concentrated  in  carloads.  Because  of  the  fact  that 
turkeys  shrink  a  good  deal  when  shipped  any  great 
distance  alive,  the  turkeys  are  for  the  most  part  killed 
and  dressed  before  shipping.  However,  quite  a  good 
many  carloads  of  live  turkeys  are  sent  through.  An- 

119 


TURKEY  RAISING 

nually  just  before  Thanksgiving  and  also  before  Christ- 
mas a  train  known  as  the  Turkey  Special  is  made  up  at 
Morristown,  Tenn.,  and  rushed  direct  from  there  to 
Jersey  City  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  train  usually 
consists  of  a  number  of  cars  of  live  poultry,  most  of 
which  are  turkeys,  together  with  some  cars  of  dressed 
poultry.  In  shipping  the  turkeys,  both  the  especially  con- 
structed live  poultry  transportation  company  cars  and 
ordinary  stock  cars  are  utilized. 

The  live  poultry  transportation  cars  are  manufactured 
for  the  purpose  of  shipping  live  fowls.  These  cars  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  cages  built  up  on  each  side  of  the  car 
with  an  aisle  between  and  with  a  feed  room  in  the  center. 
Each  car  contains  128  cages.  Since  they  are  built  for 
chickens  they  are  about  12  inches  high  and  do  not  allow 
the  turkeys  to  stand  erect  unless  the  flooring  between  two 
cages  is  taken  out  and  this  is  not  a  usual  practice.  Each 
cage  will  hold  from  7  to  12  turkeys  according  to  their 
size  and  as  a  rule  about  1,200  live  turkeys  can  be  loaded 
in  a  car.  The  minimum  weight  for  which  the  shipper 
must  pay  in  using  one  of  these  cars  is  18,000  pounds  and 
it  is  difficult  to  load  this  weight  of  turkeys  in  a  car. 
When  stock  cars  are  used,  ordinary  wooden  shipping 
cages  or  coops  are  employed  and  are  piled  one  on  top  of 
another.  These  wooden  coops  are  usually  deeper  than 
the  coops  in  the  live  poultry  transportation  cars  with  the 
result  that  not  as  many  coops  can  be  put  in  nor  as  many 
turkeys  shipped  in  one  of  these  cars.  However,  the  birds 

120 


>•- 


MARKETING 

which  are  so  shipped  are  not  as  crowded  and  for  that  rea- 
son go  through  in  a  little  better  shape. 

In  the  live  poultry  transportation  cars  an  attendant 
accompanies  each  car.  It  is  the  duty  of  this  man  to  feed 
and  water  the  birds,  to  see  that  the  car  goes  through  as 
promptly  as  possible,  and  that  the  birds  are  weighed  cor- 
rectly when  they  are  unloaded.  The  cars  are  provided 
with  troughs  for  each  coop  and  in  this  is  fed  a  sloppy 
mixture  of  crushed  corn  and  water.  When  the  weather 
is  cool,  as  it  usually  is  at  this  time  of  the  year,  no  other 
water  is  given  to  the  turkeys.  About  12  hours  before 
the  train  is  due  to  arrive  at  Jersey  City  the  turkeys  are 
given  all  the  whole  corn  that  they  will  eat  with  the  object 
of  cutting  down  the  shrinkage  as  much  as  possible.  How- 
ever, during  the  journey  the  turkeys  are  much  disturbed 
and  do  not  eat  very  well  so  that  their  shrinkage  is  high. 

Shrinkage  on  a  car  of  live  turkeys  will  run  as  a  rule 
from  12  to  i$%  as  compared  with  the  shrinkage  on  a  car 
of  chickens  under  the  same  conditions  which  runs  from 
9  to  10%.  A  few  of  the  turkeys  die  during  the  trip  or 
are  accidentally  killed.  However,  the  loss  from  this 
source  is  not  large,  probably  not  amounting  to  more  than 
i%.  The  cost  of  shipping  live  turkeys  from  Tennessee 
to  New  York  City  will  run  better  than  5  cents  a  pound. 
In  addition  to  this  cost  of  shipment  5%  commission  must 
be  deducted  for  handling  the  turkeys  on  the  market. 

When  the  cars  of  live  turkeys  arrive  at  the  railroad 
terminal  in  Jersey  City  the  turkeys  are  unloaded  and 
weighed  as  soon  as  possible.  The  commission  firm  to 

121 


TURKEY  RAISING 

which  the  turkeys  are  sent  has  a  man  on  hand  who  sees 
to  removing  the  birds,  cooping  them,  and  weighing  them 
up,  the  attendant  who  came  with  the  car  checking  the 
weights  for  the  shipper.  After  weighing,  the  coops  are 
ferried  across  the  Hudson  River  to  New  York  and  dis- 
tributed by  the  commission  firm  among  retailers  through- 
out the  city,  who  dress  and  sell  them  to  the  consumers. 
Some  wholesale  dealers,  however,  buy  the  turkeys  them- 
selves, dress  them  and  then  sell  to  the  retailer. 

Market  Prices 

The  following  are  wholesale  quotations  for  the  dif- 
ferent grades  of  turkeys  on  the  New  York  market  as 
reported  by  the  New  York  Produce  Review  under  date 
of  November  24  and  December  22,  1920: 

November  24,  1920. 

Spring,  dry  packed,  boxes :  Western,  dry  picked,  hens  and  toms, 
selected,  per  lb.,  54@55<;  southern,  53@54P;  western  and  southern, 
fair  to  good,  5O@52# ;  old  hens  and  toms,  50$. 

Spring,  dry  packed,  barrels:  Maryland,  dry  picked,  hens  and 
toms,  selected,  6o@62#;  poor  to  good,  45@58tf;  culls,  35@4<>tf;  old 
hens,  5O@54^;  old  toms,  48(0)52$;  Virginia,  selected,  dry  picked, 
53@56?;  scalded,  51(0)54^;  poor  to  good,  45@5otf;  culls,  35@4O^J 
Western,  selected,  52(0)54^;  poor  to  good,  45(0)50^;  culls,  35@4otf; 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  selected,  5i@52#;  Texas,  selected,  5i@ 
53^;  poor  to  good,  45@5otf;  culls,  35@4otf;  western  and  southern 
old  toms  and  old  hens,  47@49^. 

Spring,  iced:  Western,  dry  picked  hens  and  toms,  selected, 
50(0)52^;  poor  to  good,  42@48#;  western,  old  toms  and  old  hens, 
4<5@48$ ;  southern,  hens  and  toms,  selected,  48^ ;  poor  to  good,  4i@ 
47#;  culls,  35@400;  Ohio  and  Michigan,  scalded,  selected,  5i@53#; 
other  western,  scalded,  selected,  48@5i^;  Virginia,  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky,  scalded,  selected,  46(^48^;  poor  to  good,  42@45#;  culls» 

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MARKETING 

December  22,  1920. 

Spring,  dry  packed,  boxes :  Western,  dry  picked,  hens  and  toms, 
selected,  per  lb.,  56@s8$ ;  southern,  55@57# ;  western  and  southern, 
fair  to  good,  50(0)54^ ;  old  hens,  49@50# ;  old  toms,  46@48tf. 

Spring,  dry  packed,  barrels :  Maryland,  hens  and  small  to 
medium  toms,  selected,  6i@6^ ;  large  toms,  6o@6itf;  fair  to  good, 
55@6otf;  Maryland,  old  hens,  S°@52^'>  old  toms,  48(5)50^;  Virginia 
and  West  Virginia,  selected,  56@s8tf  ;  fair  to  good,  5O@53# ;  Western, 
selected,  55@57#;  fair  to  good,  5O@54#;  poor,  44(0)48?;  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  selected,  52@54^;  Texas,  selected,  52@S4^;  fair  to 
good,  47@5itf ;  poor,  43(0)46^;  culls,  3O@4O?;  Western  and  southern, 
old  hens,  48@5oV ;  old  toms,  45@48tf. 

Spring,  iced:  Western,  dry  picked  hens  and  toms,  selected, 
5o@55^;  poor  to  good,  44@48tf;  Southern,  hens  and  toms,  selected, 
4^@53^ ;  poor  to  good,  42@46# ;  culls, 


123 


CHAPTER  VII 
Insect  Pests,  Diseases  and  Predatory  Animals 

The  principal  difficulties  experienced  by  turkey  raisers 
in  maturing  their  stock  aside  from  those  occasioned  by 
faulty  management  are  insect  pests,  diseases  and  pred- 
atory animals.  Of  course  suitable  management  will 
also  prevent  or  greatly  reduce  the  losses  vhich  would 
otherwise  be  occasioned  from  these  sources. 

Lice 

There  are  four  different  species  of  lice  which  occur 
quite  commonly  on  turkeys  in  the  United  States.  Two  of 
these  seem  to  be  native  to  the  turkey  itself  and  it  seems 
probable  that  they  occur  on  turkeys  in  the  wild  state.  The 
first  is  the  head  louse  which  is  so  extremely  injurious  to 
young  poults  if  allowed  to  get  a  start.  The  second  is  an- 
other form  of  turkey  louse  which  occurs  through  the 
feathers  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  especially 
likely  to  be  prevalent  on  the  neck  and  the  breast.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  there  are  two  other  species  of  lice  which  are 
not  native  to  the  turkey  but  which  occur  where  the  tur- 
keys are  or  haVe  been  associated  with  chickens.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  common  body  louse  of  chickens,  which  may 
occur  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  turkeys.  Usually, 

124 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

however,  the  body  lice  are  not  present  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  cause  any  particularly  injurious  effect  to  the  ma- 
ture fowls  but  they  do  cause  considerable  irritation  and 
are  injurious  to  the  young  turkeys.  The  shaft  louse  of 
chickens  has  also  been  found  on  turkeys  but  does  not 
seem  to  be  very  prevalent. 

Where  the  young  poults  become  badly  infested  with 
lice  of  any  kind  they  usually  grow  weaker  and  weaker 
until  they  finally  die.  Due  to  lack  of  attention  to  keeping 
down  lice  this  is  one  of  the  most  important  causes  of 
high  mortality  in  young  turkeys.  Head  lice  are  the  most 
serious  and  cause  most  of  the  trouble.  If  the  young  tur- 
keys are  examined,  head  lice  if  present  will  be  found  on 
the  top  of  the  head  above  and  in  front  of  the  eyes  and 
under  the  throat  where  they  Surrow  into  the  skin.  In 
addition  to  the  head  lice  small  white  lice  are  frequently 
found  in  large  numbers  along  the  wing  bar  in  the  hollows 
or  creases  between  the  quills  of  the  flight  feathers.  Some- 
times these  places  will  be  found  to  be  literally  alive  with 
these  lice.  They  are  also  found  occasionally  below  the 
vent. 

The  first  principle  to  be  observed  in  combating  lice  is 
to  prevent  their  occurrence  insofar  as  possible.  When 
hen  turkeys  are  set  they  should  be  dusted  -with  some  good 
insect  powder  before  being  put  on  the  nest  and  several 
times  during  the  period  of  incubation.  If  this  is  thor- 
oughly done  they  will  be  freed  of  lice  and  no  difficulty  will 
be  encountered  with  the  poults  on  this  account.  If  one 
neglects  to  dust  the  hens  during  the  time  they  are  sitting 

125 


TURKEY  RAISING 

or  if  the  job  is  not  well  done,  the  poults  must  be  carefully 
examined  soon  after  they  are  hatched  and  every  few 
days  thereafter.  Examine  most  carefully  the  head  and 
throat  in  the  sections  where  the  head  lice  are  apt  to  occur 
and  if  any  of  these  pests  are  found,  the  places  where  they 
occur  must  be  carefully  greased  with  lard  or  some  similar 
grease.  The  lard  will  kill  the  lice  but  care  must  be  taken 
to  see  that  not  too  much  is  used  as  it  might  have  a  fatal 
effect  on  the  poults  themselves.  Do  not  be  content  with 
greasing  the  poults  once  and  expect  to  get  rid  of  the  head 
lice  in  that  way  but  examine  them  several  times  at  inter- 
vals of  a  few  days  so  that  if  other  lice  are  found  they  can 
be  greased  again.  Greasing  the  wing  bar  of  each  poult 
is  also  frequently  practiced  where  lice  are  found  to  occur 
at  that  point.  Do  not  dust  young  poults  freely  with 
ordinary  insect  powder  as  it  may  prove  harmful  to  them, 
especially  in  the  way  of  causing  sore  eyes.  Sodium  fluor- 
ide applied  according  to  the  directions  given  below  may 
be  safely  used. 

For  any  kind  of  lice  which  occur  on  turkeys,  sodium 
fluoride  will  be  found  to  be  a  most  effective  treatment. 
Where  sodium  fluoride  is  used  on  chickens  it  is  recom- 
mended that  it  be  used  either  in  the  form  of  a  powder  or 
else  as  a  dip.  For  turkeys,  however,  dipping  is  not  recom- 
mended. Sodium  fluoride  is  exceedingly  poisonous  to  all 
species  of  lice  killing  both  the  young  and  the  adults  and 
the  young  which  emerge  from  the  eggs  which  were  pres- 
ent at  the  time  of  treatment.  This  chemical  is  not  very 
well  known  and  is  not  very  widely  kept  in  drug  stores. 

126 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

It  can,  however,  be  obtained  from  wholesale  druggists  in 
the  larger  cities  and  other  druggists  can  secure  it  on  de- 
mand. It  comes  in  two  forms  known  as  the  commercial 
sodium  fluoride  and  as  the  chemically  pure  sodium  fluor- 
ide. The  commercial  is  recommended  for  use  inasmuch 
as  it  is  in  a  more  finely  powdered  form,  is  cheaper  in  price 
and  will  do  the  work  very  well.  Commercial  sodium 
fluoride  should  be  procurable  from  druggists  at  a  retail 
price  between  30  and  60  cents  a  pound.  This  material 
keeps  very  well  if  placed  in  stoppered  bottles  or  in  closely 
covered  cans. 

Where  the  turkeys  are  to  be  dusted  small  amounts  of 
the  sodium  fluoride  should  be  placed  around  on  different 
parts  of  the  fowls  to  be  treated.  In  treating  the  adult 
turkeys  one  should  have  an  assistant  to  hold  the  bird 
while  the  sodium  fluoride  is  applied.  It  is  well  to  place 
the  bird  on  a  table  where  the  assistant  can  hold  it  by  the 
legs  and  wings.  Place  a  small  pinch  of  the  sodium  fluor- 
ide among  the  feathers  next  to  the  skin  in  the  following 
sections :  one  pinch  on  the  head,  one  on  the  neck,  two  on 
the  back,  one  on  the  breast,  one  below  the  vent,  one  on  the 
tail,  one  on  either  thigh  and  one  scattered  on  the  upper 
side  of  each  wing  when  spread  and  one  scattered  on  the 
under  side.  The  action  of  the  chemical  is  comparatively 
slow.  If  the  turkeys  are  examined  two  or  three  days 
after  they  have  been  treated  it  is  possible  that  some  lice 
will  still  be  found  but  in  a  few  days  more  all  of  them 
should  have  disappeared.  In  using  the  material  no  fear 
need  be  felt  that  it  will  produce  any  bad  effects  on  the 

127 


TURKEY  RAISING 

turkeys  as  it  does  not  seem  to  cause  a  skin  irritation  or  to 
injure  the  feathers.  Sometimes  after  dusting,  the  fowls 
may  sneeze  and  breathe  hard  but  this  soon  wears  off. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  sodium  fluoride  is  not 
left  around  where  the  fowls  could  get  it  in  their  food  or 
water,  as  it  is  poisonous. 

Care  should  also  be  taken  by  the  person  using  the 
sodium  fluoride  to  prevent  it  from  getting  and  staying 
on  the  hands  or  body  for  any  length  of  time  as  it  may 
have  an  irritating  or  burning  effect  on  the  skin.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  it  is  better  to  put  the  fowls  to  be  treated 
on  a  table  rather  than  to  hold  them  on  the  lap.  Sodium 
fluoride  may  be  used  on  young  turkeys  as  well  as  on  the 
mature  fowls  without  danger  of  bad  results.  In  using  it 
on  the  young  fowls,  however,  it  is  best  that  it  be  used  in 
the  morning  instead  of  just  before  they  go  to  roost. 
Where  the  mother  turkey  has  been  properly  dusted  it  is 
unnecessary  to  use  more  than  a  couple  of  pinches  on  each 
poult,  one  scattered  on  the  neck  and  top  of  the  head  and 
throat  and  the  other  on  the  back  and  wings  and  below 
the  vent. 

In  addition  to  sodium  fluoride  any  good  commercial  in- 
sect powder  can  be  used  with  good  results.  A  home-made 
powder  of  this  sort  which  is  effective  is  composed  of  3 
parts  gasoline,  i  part  crude  carbolic  acid,  into  which  plas- 
ter of  paris  is  stirred  until  it  blots  up  all  the  liquid  and 
forms  a  dry  powder.  The  powder  should  be  kept  in  a 
tight  can  or  bottle  in  order  to  preserve  its  strength. 

It  is  very  easy  for  one  who  is  not  used  to  looking  for 

128 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

lice  on  young  turkeys  to  overlook  these  pests  even  after 
what  they  consider  careful  examination.  For  this  reason 
if  one's  turkeys  are  droopy  and  not  doing  well  and  still 
the  owner  is  convinced  that  there  are  no  lice  on  them, 
further  examination  for  this  purpose  should  be  made. 
The  following  experiment  may  be  tried  on  little  turkeys 
under  those  conditions.  Submerge  the  little  turkey  in 
warm  water  which  has  been  heated  to  about  body  tem- 
perature. Hold  the  little  bird  there  with  just  its  bill 
sticking  out  so  that  it  can  breathe,  until  the  entire  plumage 
is  thoroughly  wet,  then  wrap  it  in  a  white  cloth  which  has 
been  nicely  warmed  and  hold  the  bird  this  way  for  several 
minutes.  Then  take  the  cloth  off  and  notice  whether  there 
are  any  lice  on  it.  Usually  this  experiment  will  result  in 
finding  a  large  number  of  lice  on  the  cloth  even  when  the 
turkey  was  supposed  to  be  absolutely  free  from  them. 

Stick-Tight  Fleas  or  Chiggers. — In  addition  to  the  lice 
which  trouble  turkeys  there  is  also  more  or  less  difficulty 
in  parts  of  the  South  from  the  stick-tight  fleas  or  chiggers, 
which  affect  both  chickens  and  turkeys.  These  fleas  breed 
and  abound  in  dry  sandy  soil,  particularly  in  sheltered 
places  out  of  the  rain  under  buildings.  They  attach 
themselves  to  the  fowl  especially  on  the  uncovered  head 
parts  where  they  suck  the  blood  and  cause  intense  irrita- 
tion. The  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  turkeys  as 
free  from  stick-tight  fleas  as  possible  by  not  allowing 
them  to  go  under  buildings  or  other  sheltered  places 
where  the  soil  is  not  rained  upon  but  is  dry  and  sandy. 
Not  as  much  difficulty  is  likely  to  be  experienced  with 

129 


TURKEY  RAISING 

stick-tight  fleas  on  turkeys  as  on  fowls  since  the  turkeys 
are  inclined  to  range  more  and  to  stay  away  from  the  farm 
buildings  to  a  greater  extent.  Where  stick  tight  fleas 
are  troublesome,  however,  various  ointments  sold  for 
this  purpose  are  effective  in  killing  them.  These  oint- 
ments must  of  course  be  rubbed  on  the  parts  to  which 
the  fleas  are  attached.  Ordinary  salt  fat  such  as  ham  fat 
or  salt  pork  fat  rubbed  on  the  fleas  is  also  effective  in 
ridding  the  turkeys  of  them. 

Diseases 

While  turkeys  do  not  seem  to  be  subject  to  a  great 
number  of  diseases  still,  on  account  of  their  nature  and 
habits,  serious  difficulty  may  be  experienced  with  disease 
unless  the  fowls  are  given  the  right  kind  of  treatment 
and  are  allowed  to  range  almost  at  will.  They  do  not 
seem  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  more  restricted  condi- 
tions of  domestication  as  can  the  ordinary  domestic  fowl. 
When  the  range  is  ample,  however,  the  diseases  are  not 
so  common  nor  do  they  prove  particularly  troublesome 
provided  the  stock  from  which  the  birds  are  bred  is 
strong  and  vigorous  and  the  management  and  care  given 
them  are  correct.  It  may  be  said  that  while  diseases,  par- 
ticularly blackhead,  have  been  given  credit  for  being  the 
reason  for  turkey  raising  declining  to  such  an  extent  as 
it  has  in  many  portions  of  the  country,  as  a  matter  of 
fact  it  is  not  the  principal  reason  for  people  discontinuing 
the  business  of  turkey  raising.  The  real  reason  lies 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

rather  in  the  increased  population  of  the  countryside  with 
the  result  that  it  becomes  more  difficult  to  keep  the  turkeys 
from  ranging  over  the  neighbors'  farms.  But  while  the 
diseases  to  which  turkeys  are  subject  will  not  prevent  their 
being  raised  successfully,  it  is  true  that  the  losses  from 
disease  have  been  serious  particularly  in  certain  sections. 
Diseases  are  most  common  where  turkeys  have  been 
raised  in  considerable  numbers  for  the  longest  period. 

Getieral  Disease  Preventive  Measures. — In  raising  tur- 
keys as  in  raising  any  other  kind  of  domestic  poultry 
the  most  important  consideration  insofar  as  disease  is 
concerned  is  to  use  every  reasonable  precaution  to  pre- 
vent its  occurrence.  In  order  to  do  this  it  is  necessary 
that  the  turkey  grower  be  a  close  observer  and  that  he 
watch  his  birds  carefully  in  order  to  discover  the  least 
sign  of  sickness.  Often  if  diseases  are  discovered  just 
as  they  begin  they  are  easily  cured  and  in  any  case  pre- 
vention of  their  spread  is  a  much  simpler  matter.  When- 
ever new  stock  is  purchased  it  is  well  to  isolate  it  for  a 
few  days  before  letting  it  run  with  the  home  flock.  This 
will  give  an  opportunity  to  observe  the  birds  and  see 
whether  or  not  they  are  in  a  good  healthy  condition.  The 
turkey  flock  should  be  kept  separate  insofar  as  possible 
from  the  chickens.  It  is  easy  for  turkeys  to  pick  up 
diseases  from  the  chickens  and  often  diseases  which  are 
not  so  serious  with  the  chickens  may  prove  to  be  very 
troublesome  with  the  turkeys.  For  this  reason  it  is  well 
to  keep  the  fowls  ranging  away  from  the  farm  buildings 


TURKEY  RAISING 

as  much  as  possible,  encouraging  them  during  the  summer 
and  fall  to  come  home  only  at  night  to  roost. 

If  any  birds  become  seriously  sick  it  will  not  as  a  rule 
pay  to  attempt  treatment.  Not  only  is  treatment  likely 
to  be  futile  but  keeping  a  very  sick  bird  around  is  a  men- 
ace in  that  it  may  lead  to  a  spread  of  the  disease  through 
the  flock.  Even  birds  which  are  not  seriously  sick  and 
which  it  is  desired  to  treat  should  be  separated  from  the 
main  flock  for  this  purpose.  With  seriously  sick  birds  it 
is,  therefore,  best  to  kill  them  as  soon  as  discovered.  The 
bodies  of  such  birds  should  be  either  burned  or  else 
buried  deeply  so  that  there  will  be  no  chance  of  the 
spread  of  the  infection  from  this  source. 

Where  turkeys  are  housed  during  the  severe  winter 
weather  in  the  North,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  house 
in  a  very  clean  sanitary  condition  if  the  turkeys  are  to 
remain  in  the  best  of  health.  The  droppings  should  be 
kept  well  cleaned  out  and  it  is  also  desirable  to  spray  the 
house  occasionally  with  some  disinfectant.  During  the 
summer  also  it  is  desirable  to  clean  up  the  droppings  fre- 
quently from  under  the  outdoor  roosting  places  so  that  a 
large  accumulation  of  this  material  will  not  take  place. 
If  there  are  any  small  areas  of  ground  near  the  house  used 
by  the  turkeys  a  great  deal  and  if  there  is  any  reason  to 
suspect  that  these  places  may  be  sources  of  infection  to 
the  flock  it  is  well  to  lime  this  ground  and  then  turn  it 
over. 

Precaution  should  be  taken  in  feeding  young  turkeys 
to  see  that  the  feed  is  thrown  on  clean  ground  or  on 

132 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

clean  board  surfaces  or  other  feeding  places.  Surplus 
feed  should  not  be  allowed  to  lie  around  where  it  will 
sour  and  spoil,  as  such  material  is  very  bad  for  turkeys. 
It  is  likewise  desirable  both  in  feeding  young  and  old 
birds  not  to  continue  to  feed  on  the  same  spot  of  ground 
indefinitely  but  to  change  occasionally  to  fresh  places. 
Many  turkey  breeders  feel  that  the  feeding  of  sour  milk 
as  a  drink  both  to  the  young  turkeys  and  to  the  mature 
stock  is  a  most  valuable  disease  preventive.  In  case 
there  are  indications  of  any  disease  developing  it  is  a 
good  precautionary  measure  to  place  a  disinfectant  in  the 
drinking  water  where  this  is  provided  for  the  birds  in 
fountains  or  other  receptacles.  Potassium  permanganate 
is  a  good  disinfectant  to  use,  putting  enough  in  the  water 
to  give  it  a  deep  purple  color. 

Blackhead. — Undoubtedly,  the  prevalence  of  blackhead 
throughout  the  New  England  and  Middle  Atlantic  states 
has  been  a  great  factor  in  reducing  the  number  of  turkeys 
raised  there  to  an  almost  negligible  quantity,  although 
turkey  raising  in  former  years  was  quite  an  important 
industry. 

An  example  may  be  cited  of  the  condition  which  oc- 
curred in  St.  Lawrence  County,  N.  Y.,  a  famous  turkey 
producing  section,  during  the  late  summer  and  early  fall 
of  1914.  At  this  time  an  epidemic  of  blackhead  broke 
out  here  which  was  more  serious  than  had  ever  before 
been  experienced  in  that  section.  How  serious  this  was 
is  well  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  number  of  turkeys 
hatched  and  the  number  raised  from  the  records  of  sev- 

133 


TURKEY  RAISING 

eral  turkey  raisers  in  and  about  Heuvelton  and  Lisbon, 
N.  Y. 


No.  Turkeys  Hatched        No.  Turkeys  Raised 

200  25 

168  126 

155  60 

140  40 

130  106 

"5  25 

loo  30 

50  10 

50  40 

47  19 

It  will  be  seen  that  from  all  of  these  flocks  there  was 
an  average  of  41.6%  of  the  turkeys  raised  out  of  those 
hatched.  A  careful  examination  of  the  different  flock 
records,  however,  shows  that  in  spite  of  this  serious  epi- 
demic of  blackhead,  certain  turkey  growers  were  able  to 
raise  a  very  much  larger  proportion  of  turkeys  hatched 
than  the  average.  This  goes  to  show  that  with  proper 
management  turkeys  can  be  successfully  raised  even 
though  disease  may  be  a  serious  bar  to  those  who  do  not 
understand  the  needs  and  nature  of  the  fowls.  In  con- 
nection with  the  epidemic  cited  it  might  be  stated  that 
most  of  the  turkeys  died  when  from  two  to  three  months 
old  and  showed  the  characteristic  blackhead  lesions  when 
opened  up  and  examined.  The  farmers  in  the  section  did 

134 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

not  know  what  disease  caused  the  turkeys  to  die  and 
called  it  various  names  such  as  cholera,  white  cholera, 
yellow  cholera,  scours,  white  diarrhea  and  yellow  diarrhea. 

Of  all  the  diseases  to  -which  turkeys  are  subject,  black- 
head is  undoubtedly  the  most  serious  and  has  had  the 
most  detrimental  effect  on  the  turkey  raising  industry.  It 
is  an  infectious  disease  which  occurs  most  commonly  and 
with  most  disastrous  results  through  New  England,  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  and  parts  of  the  Middle  West.  It 
also  occurs  occasionally  in  parts  of  the  South  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Where  turkeys  are  permitted  by  virtue  of 
the  climate  and  an  abundance  of  range  to  have  their 
liberty  and  to  forage  for  most  of  their  feed  from  the  time 
they  are  hatched,  this  disease  is  far  less  frequent  in  oc- 
currence and  disastrous  in  effect.  In  the  main  it  affects 
young  turkeys  at  any  time  between  the  ages  of  six  weeks 
and  four  months.  It  occasionally  affects  mature  turkeys 
as  well  but  not  often.  Blackhead  is  an  unfortunate  name 
for  the  disease  since  it  leads  the  turkey  raiser  to  expect 
the  head  to  turn  black  or  dark.  While  this  often  happens 
it  does  not  always  do  so  and  even  where  it  does,  the  dark 
color  of  the  head  may  be  a  symptom  of  some  other  ail- 
ment instead  of  blackhead.  The  symptoms  in  a  general 
way  are  indicated  by  a  steady  weakening  of  the  bird,  a 
refusal  to  eat  and  a  considerable  thirst.  Death  ordinarily 
occurs  anywhere  from  a  few  days  up  to  two  or  three 
weeks  after  the  disease  is  first  noticed.  Quite  often, 
however,  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  slower  than  this. 

Diarrhea  accompanies  the  disease  and  the  color  of  the 

135 


TURKEY  RAISING 

droppings  is  often  a  bright  yellow  but  may  vary  from 
white  to  brown.  It  is  on  opening  up  the  body  of  a  dead 
turkey  that  one  is  able  to  find  the  conditions  which  are 
characteristic  of  the  disease.  This  is  evidenced  by  one  or 
both  of  the  caeca  or  "blind  guts"  being  enlarged  and 
plugged  full  of  a  cheesy  material.  In  addition,  the  liver  is 
likely  to  be  more  or  less  enlarged  and  to  show  yellowish 
or  yellowish  green  spots  on  its  surface. 

There  is  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
what  may  be  the  cause  of  blackhead.  In  the  opinion  of 
some  turkey  raisers  and  others  who  have  studied  this 
matter  it  is  simply  the  fact  that  the  turkey  is  not  easily 
adapted  to  domestication  and  that  unless  the  greatest  care 
is  taken  in  selecting  strong  healthy  breeding  stock  and 
giving  the  birds  proper  management  and  allowing  them 
free  range,  they  are  likely  to  develop  this  diseased  condi- 
tion. Another  theory  lays  the  cause  of  the  disease  to  a 
parasitic  protozoan  called  an  amoeba  which  exists  in  the 
digestive  tract  of  the  bird  and  is  discharged  from  the  body 
with  the  excrement,  in  this  way  infecting  other  birds  by 
being  taken  into  the  body  with  the  food  or  drink.  A 
third  theory  holds  that  the  disease  is  caused  by  another 
kind  of  protozoan  organism  known  as  flagellates.  These 
occur  in  the  intestines  of  practically  all  turkeys  but  give 
rise  to  the  trouble  which  is  evidenced  as  blackhead  only 
when  the  circumstances  under  which  the  turkeys  live  are 
unfavorable  and  lead  to  digestive  conditions  in  the  intes- 
tines such  that  the  flagellates  find  conditions  suitable  for 
their  multiplication.  Many  of  them  then  penetrate  the 

136 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

lining  of  the  caeca  and  from  there  are  carried  to  the  liver, 
establishing  a  diseased  condition  in  both  places.  Regard- 
less of  what  may  be  the  specific  cause  of  the  disease  there 
seems  to  be  quite  a  close  agreement  of  opinion  that  prac- 
tically all  turkeys  in  the  sections  where  the  disease  is 
prevalent  are  subject  to  the  infection  and  that  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  or  not  the  disease  develops  at  all  or 
whether  it  reaches  serious  proportions  is  largely  a  matter 
of  management. 

There  really  is  no  treatment  for  blackhead  which  will 
give  definite  and  satisfactory  results.  It  will  scarcely  ever 
pay  to  attempt  to  treat  sick  birds  since  they  are  always  a 
menace  to  the  rest  of  the  flock,  as  they  are  likely  to  cause 
further  spread  of  the  disease,  and  if  they  are  seriously 
sick  it  is  best  to  take  no  chances  but  to  kill  them  and  bury 
them  deeply  or  burn  them.  Precautions  can  also  be 
taken  in  keeping  the  droppings  cleaned  out  from  the 
roosting  place  and  also  in  spreading  lime  on  the  soil  in 
such  places  as  the  turkeys  frequent  to  a  great  extent.  It 
is  also  well  to  use  some  form  of  disinfectant  in  the  drink- 
ing water  such  as  potassium  permanganate  to  the  extent 
of  about  as  much  as  can  be  placed  on  a  dime  to  each  gallon 
of  water. 

Overfeeding  seems  to  predispose  the  birds  to  the  dis- 
ease and  if  the  beginnings  of  any  trouble  are  noted  it  will 
be  well  to  cut  down  the  feed.  Many  turkey  raisers  feel 
that  the  feeding  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  is  advantage- 
ous in  keeping  the  turkeys  in  good  condition  and  in  re- 
ducing the  likelihood  of  blackhead.  Another  remedy 

137 


TURKEY  RAISING 

which  is  often  used  consists  of  sulphur  5  grains,  sulphate 
of  iron  i  grain;  or  benzonaphthol  i  grain,  salicylate  of 
bismuth  i  grain ;  or  sulphate  of  iron  I  grain,  salicylate  of 
soda  i  grain.  Where  either  of  these  remedies  are  used 
they  are  preceded  by  a  dose  of  epsom  salts  from  10  to  35 
grains  for  a  bird;  or  a  dose  of  castor  oil  of  from  one-half 
to  3  teaspoonfuls,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  bird.  One- 
third  teaspoonful  of  catechu  to  the  gallon  of  drinking 
water  is  also  said  to  have  a  beneficial  effect.  Another 
blackhead  remedy  advocated  by  a  turkey  grower  consists 
of  epsom  salts  in  the  drinking  water  in  the  proportion  of 
one  pint  of  saturated  solution  of  the  salts  to  five  gallons 
of  water.  This  is  given  for  one  day  and  is  followed  on 
the  next  day  with  four  teaspoonfuls  of  muriatic  acid  to 
each  gallon  of  drinking  water. 

There  has  recently  been  announced,  by  Dr.  H.  M. 
Wegeforth,  San  Diego,  Calif.,  an  ipecac  treatment  for 
blackhead  which  is  claimed  to  be  both  a  preventive  and 
curative.  For  sick  birds,  fluid  extract  of  ipecac  is  ad- 
ministered in  the  amount  of  10  drops  three  times  a  day 
for  3  days  for  each  bird.  For  the  next  three  days,  the 
dose  is  10  drops  twice  a  day  and  for  the  next  3  days 
10  drops  once  a  day.  This  treatment  it  is  claimed  cured 
birds  with  well  developed  cases  of  blackhead. 

As  a  preventive  treatment,  the  ipecac  was  administered 
in  powdered  form  mixed  with  a  mash  feed  giving  one 
teaspoonful  twice  a  week  for  each  20  turkeys,  making  no 
difference  in  the  dosage  for  size  or  age  of  the  birds.  This 

138 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

treatment  it  is  claimed  will  keep  the  turkeys  from  devel- 
oping the  disease. 

At  the  present  time  the  ipecac  treatment  of  turkeys 
for  blackhead  has  not  been  sufficiently  used  and  under 
sufficient  conditions  and  sections  to  determine  its  real 
effectiveness.  When  blackhead  is  troublesome  its  use  in 
an  experimental  way  is  advised. 

Chicken-pox  or  Sore  Head. — Ordinary  chicken-pox  or 
sore  head,  particularly  in  the  South,  not  infrequently 
troubles  turkeys  just  as  it  does  fowls.  It  is  evidenced  by 
the  same  nodules  or  scabby  eruptions  about  the  head. 
Where  this  disease  appears  in  the  flock  it  is  likely  to 
spread  rapidly  from  bird  to  bird.  For  this  reason  if  a 
bird  is  found  to  be  infected  it  should  be  removed  from  the 
flock  and  kept  separate.  The  scabs  which  form  may  be 
soaked  off  by  bathing  them  with  warm  water  when  the 
surfaces  below  should  be  washed  with  an  antiseptic  such 
as  a  2%  solution  of  carbolic  acid  or  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium permanganate,  or  the  sore,  after  the  scab  is  re- 
moved, may  be  touched  with  a  tincture  of  iodine.  A 
saturated  solution  of  borax  is  also  said  to  give  good 
results  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease. 

Roup. — Next  to  blackhead  roup  is  probably  more  trou- 
blesome than  any  other  disease  of  turkeys.  It  is  particu- 
larly likely  to  occur  when  the  birds  are  exposed  to  draft 
or  to  dampness.  It  begins  like  an  ordinary  cold  but  as  it 
develops  into  roup  there  will  be  a  swelling  which  occurs 
about  the  eyes,  usually  below,  and  because  of  which  the 
disease  is  often  termed  "swell  head."  Roup  seems  to  be 

139 


TURKEY  RAISING 

highly  contagious  and  for  this  reason  affected  birds  should 
be  isolated  from  the  flock.  If  the  disease  is  very  bad  the 
bird  should  be  killed  rather  than  run  the  risk  of  spread- 
ing the  disease,  but  if  the  bird  is  lightly  affected  the  nos- 
trils and  mouth  can  be  -washed  out  with  some  disinfectant 
such  as  a  solution  of  potassium  permanganate.  Where  a 
serious  swelling  is  formed  this  should  be  lanced  and  the 
puss  or  material  which  it  contains  squeezed  out,  after 
which  the  sore  should  be  washed  out  with  an  antiseptic. 

Limberneck. — As  in  chickens  so  in  turkeys  limberneck 
sometimes  occurs.  It  is  characterized  by  loss  of  the  use 
of  the  muscles  of  the  neck,  causing  the  head  to  hang 
down.  It  is  commonly  supposed  that  limberneck  is  a 
paralysis  caused  by  intestinal  poison.  This  may  be  due 
to  eating  decayed  meat  or  unsound  food  of  some  kind  or 
in  some  cases  to  digestive  disturbances  or  intestinal 
worms.  The  usual  treatment  for  this  difficulty  consists 
of  giving  the  affected  birds  a  tablespoon ful  of  castor  oil. 
It  is  also  well  to  add  10  to  15  drops  of  turpentine  to  the 
oil 

Crop-bound. — In  turkeys  a  crop-bound  condition  or 
impaction  of  the  crop  sometimes  occurs.  This  is  usually 
caused  by  the  fowls  eating  feathers  or  some  other  indi- 
gestible material  such  as  straw  or  stiff  grasses  which  pre- 
vents the  food  from  passing  out  of  the  crop  and  causes 
the  crop  to  become  full  and  hard.  As  a  treatment  give 
the  bird  a  teaspoonful  of  sweet  oil.  After  this  has 
reached  the  crop,  the  contents  can  be  worked  about  with 
the  fingers  until  the  oil  is  well  mixed  through  and  when 

140 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

loosened  up  in  this  way  the  material  in  the  crop  can  usu- 
ally be  forced  out  through  the  mouth  by  holding  the  bird 
with  its  head  down.  In  case  it  is  not  possible  to  clear  up 
the  difficulty  in  this  way,  the  crop  can  be  opened  by  cut- 
ting through  the  skin  and  through  the  wall  of  the  crop 
itself.  In  making  the  incision  pull  the  outside  skin  to  one 
side  so  that  when  it  is  allowed  to  slip  back  to  its  normal 
position  after  the  cut  is  made,  the  incision  in  the  crop 
will  be  covered  by  the  outside  skin.  The  material  can 
then  be  taken  out  with  the  handle  of  a  spoon  or  some 
similar  instrument,  being  sure  that  the  obstructing  sub- 
stance is  removed.  The  crop  is  then  sewed  up  again,  pre- 
caution being  taken  to  sew  up  the  walls  of  the  crop  and 
the  skin  separately. 

Worms. — Turkeys  are  quite  subject  to  intestinal  or 
round  worms.  They  occur  both  in  young  poults  and  in 
the  adult  fowls.  These  are  slender,  white,  threadlike 
worms  which  may  be  present  at  times  in  considerable 
quantities.  In  order  to  prevent  trouble  from  this  cause 
it  is  well  to  worm  the  breeding  stock  in  the  spring  before 
the  ovaries  begin  to  function  and  laying  starts.  It  should 
be  done  at  this  time  in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  lay- 
ing. Give  each  turkey  a  dose  of  sweet  oil  to  which  a  few 
drops  of  chenopodium  or  American  wormseed  oil  has 
been  added.  Nearly  a  half  cup  of  this  mixture  can  be 
given  as  a  dose  for  a  large  bird,  and  in  this  quantity  there 
should  not  be  over  three  or  four  drops  of  wormseed  oil. 
The  young  turkeys  as  well  as  the  adults  are  apt  to  be 
greatly  troubled  by  worms.  In  many  cases  it  may  prove 

141 


TURKEY  RAISING 

to  be  a  valuable  precaution  to  treat  them  for  worms  from 
the  start.  For  this  purpose  use  a  mixture  composed  of 
two  tablespoon fuls  of  turpentine  to  a  pint  of  sweet  oil. 
This  can  be  administered  to  the  young  poults  with  a 
medicine  dropper  giving  them  three  or  four  drops  to 
start  with  and  gradually  increasing  the  dose  until  a  whole 
medicine  dropper  is  used  as  the  poults  grow  larger. 

Gapes. — Gapes  are  not  as  troublesome  to  turkeys  as 
they  are  to  chickens.  This  is  probably  largely  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  turkeys  range  away  from  the  buildings  to  a 
greater  degree  and  are  not  so  likely  to  pick  up  the  infec- 
tion. Occasionally,  however,  gapes  do  cause  trouble  and 
may  even  be  so  serious  as  to  make  it  difficult  to  raise 
turkeys.  The  disease,  gapes,  is  so  called  from  the  char- 
acteristic gaping  action  of  the  affected  chick  or  turkey. 
The  disease  is  due  to  small  forked  worms  which  attach 
themselves  to  the  lining  of  the  windpipe,  causing  irrita- 
tion, and  if  present  in  sufficient  numbers  may  even  make 
breathing  difficult  and  result  in  the  weakening  and  even- 
tual death  of  the  young  bird.  Gapes  are  most  apparent 
and  most  seriously  affect  young  fowls  between  the  ages  of 
10  days  and  four  weeks.  As  a  rule  the  larger,  stronger, 
more  vigorous  youngsters  are  not  seriously  affected.  The 
young  worms  or  the  eggs  from  which  they  come  are 
picked  up  from  the  infested  soil,  and  this  infection  will 
last  from  one  year  to  another.  The  logical  and  self-evi- 
dent action  to  take  in  case  gapes  are  troublesome  is  to 
place  the  turkey  hens  with  their  broods  far  enough  away 
from  the  house  so  that  they  will  be  on  land  which  has  not 

143 


f 
DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

been  previously  ranged  over  to  any  extent  by  chickens. 
If  this  action  is  taken  at  the  start  there  will  be  little  if 
any  trouble  from  gapes. 

In  the  case  of  birds  which  are  affected  it  is  often  pos- 
sible to  save  them  by  treating  the  individuals.  This  is 
best  done  by  looping  a  horsehair,  dipping  it  in  turpentine, 
and  running  it  down  the  windpipe  of  the  little  turkey.  Be 
sure  that  the  horsehair  is  introduced  into  the  windpipe 
and  not  down  the  throat  itself.  After  the  hair  has  been 
run  down  the  windpipe  turn  it  about  several  times  and 
then  pull  it  out.  This  action  should  be  repeated  several 
times  and  will  result  in  loosening  the  hold  of  many  of  the 
worms  which  are  attached  to  the  walls  of  the  windpipe. 
Some  of  them  may  be  drawn  out  by  the  looped  hair,  but 
if  not  those  which  are  loosened  will  be  coughed  up  by  the 
turkey. 

Bumblefoot. — Occasionally  turkeys  are  troubled  with 
bumble  foot,  which  is  a  swollen  or  corn-like  condition  on 
the  bottom  of  the  feet.  It  is  due  to  an  injury  to  the  feet 
usually  caused  by  the  birds  jumping  down  from  their 
roosts  or  other  elevations  to  a  hard  floor.  It  may  become 
so  bad  as  to  cause  considerable  pain  and  lameness.  The 
best  treatment  is  to  lance  the  swelling  with  a  sharp  knife, 
squeezing  out  the  puss  and  the  core  which  will  be  found. 
The  wound  should  then  be  washed  thoroughly  with  a  dis- 
infectant and  greased  liberally  with  carbolated  vaseline. 

Diarrhea  or  Bowel  Trouble. — Diarrhea  is  a  common 
ailment  of  turkeys,  both  young  and  mature.  It  may  be 
the  symptom  of  some  disease,  or  it  may  be  due  to  over- 


TURKEY  RAISING 

feeding  or  to  faulty  feeding.  In  young  turkeys  it  is  fre- 
quently due  to  their  being  chilled.  When  diarrhea  ap- 
pears immediate  effort  should  be  made  to  ascertain  its 
cause  and  of  course  to  correct  the  conditions  which  are 
responsible.  In  the  case  of  young  turkeys,  make  sure  that 
they  are  not  being  chilled  and  that  they  are  not  overfed 
or  that  they  do  not  have  access  to  sour  or  spoiled  feed. 
In  mature  birds,  likewise,  make  sure  that  they  are  not  get- 
ting spoiled  feed  or  feed  which  disagrees  with  them  such 
as  too  much  new  corn.  Boiled  rice  fed  to  young  turkeys 
is  claimed  by  many  turkey  growers  to  have  a  corrective 
effect  in  case  of  diarrhea.  Castor  oil  may  be  given  to 
older  fowls  in  a  dose  of  from  one  to  three  teaspoonfuls, 
depending  on  the  size  of  the  bird. 

Predatory  Animals 

Marauding  or  predatory  animals  frequently  cause  seri- 
ous losses  of  turkey  eggs  from  the  nest  where  the  hen 
is  sitting,  of  young  turkeys  and  even  of  mature  stock. 
Skunks,  oppossums,  rats,  crows  and  dogs  are  the  greatest 
destroyers  of  turkey  eggs.  Mink,  raccoons,  coyotes, 
wolves,  foxes,  cats  and  certain  large  snakes  are  also  egg 
eaters.  The  best  way  to  prevent  loss  from  this  source 
is  to  locate  all  turkey  nests  and  remove  the  eggs  as 
they  are  laid,  leaving  only  a  nest  egg  or  two  to  encourage 
the  hen  to  keep  on  laying  them.  When  the  hen  is  set 
she  should  be  given  protection  from  animals  by  being 
placed  under  a  coop  so  constructed  as  to  protect  her 

144 


DISEASES  AND  PREDATORY  ANIMALS 

properly.  A  little  strychnine  dropped  in  an  egg  and 
left  in  a  turkey  nest  over  night  will  often  serve  to  kill  the 
animals  which  come  to  rob  the  nest.  Where  a  turkey  hen 
is  disturbed  by  any  of  these  pests  she  often  changes  her 
nest  to  some  other  locality. 

In  addition  to  the  losses  from  eggs  being  destroyed, 
young  poults  are  sometimes  caught  and  killed  by  hawks 
and  by  most  of  the  animals  mentioned  above.  Night 
losses  can  be  prevented  by  driving  the  brood  into  a  coop 
where  they  can  be  closed  up  for  the  night  so  that  animals 
cannot  get  at  them.  This  must  be  continued  until  the  tur- 
keys are  old  enough  to  roost  up  out  of  danger.  In  certain 
sections  of  the  country  where  coyotes,  wolves  or  foxes 
are  plentiful,  mature  stock  may  be  lost  from  this  source. 
About  the  only  remedy  is  to  attempt  to  free  the  range 
from  the  animals  which  cause  the  loss  and  to  provide 
roosts  which  are  high  enough  to  place  the  birds  out  of  the 
reach  of  these  four-footed  thieves. 


145 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Age  of  Breeders 44 

Distinguishing   46 

Alternating  Males  50 

American  Standard  of  Perfection  17 

Artificial  Brooding  85 

Incubation    75 

Barrels  for  Packing  113 

Blackhead    133 

Black  Turkeys  17 

Breeding  of   30 

Blue  or  Lavender 31 

Bourbon  Red  17 

Breeding  of   . 32 

Boxes  for  packing  turkeys  114 

Breeders,  Age  of   44 

Feeding  of   54 

Prices  of   12 

Purchasing    48 

Selecting    20,  42,  106 

Shipping 36 

Size  of  18 

Breeding  and  Laying  Season  58 

Stock,  Management  of  Turkey  41 

Yards   50 

Bronze  Turkey  17 

Breeding  of   25 

Brood  Coop  for  Hen  and  Poults 79 

Broodiness,  Breaking  up  61 

Brooding  by  Artificial  Means  85 

Young  Stock  78 

Location  of  80,  81 

Bumblefoot   143 

Caponizing    107 

Catching  and  Handling 35 

Chickenpox  or  Sorehead 139 

Chiggers  129 

147 


INDEX 

>~.        .  PAGE 

Clipping  wings  .....................  e2 

Cocks,  Adult  ...................................  V.V.*  .'  17 

Yearling  ............................................  ......  17 

Confinement,  keeping  turkeys  in  ..................  .*.  .'.*.  .  '  '  *  '.  '„  n 

Fattening  in  ......................................  ........  106 

Coop  for  Shipping  ............................  *  ......  .....  .37,  108 

Cost  of  Raising  ...................................  ........    '  10 

Crop  Bound  .......................................  .........  140 

Crossing   ............................................  ......  .23,  24 

Curing  Feathers  ............................................  n6 

Defects  in  Breeding—  See  Variety  Concerned 

Description  —  See  Variety  Concerned 

Diarrhea  .......................................  84,  135,  143 

Diseases  of  Turkeys  .........................................     130 

Distinguishing  Sex    ...................................  '.'.'.'.'.'.      96 

Domestic  Turkey  ........................  ...................       jg 

Dressing  Turkeys  ...................................  *  ____  '.'no,  117 

Dry  Picking  ................................................     no 

Dusting  for  Lice  .................................  ....  .......      74 

Eastern  Wild  Turkey  ..................................  2 

Egg,  Size  of  ................................................  77 

Eggs,  number  in  litter  ......................................  8 

Car 


re  of,  for  hatching  ......  .................................  65 

Incubation  of   .............................................  67 

Number  to  set  ............................................  69 

Eggs  for  hatching—  Packing  and  Shipping  ....................  38 

Enemies  of  Turkeys  ........................  .  .  .  .  ............  144 

Extent  of  Industry  ..........................................  5 

Fattening  Turkeys  ..............  ............................  104 

In  Confinement  ...........................................  106 

Feathers,  Turkey  ...........................................  115 

Prices  of  .................................................  1  16 

Feathering  of  Poults  .....  .  .  .......................  ,  ..........  94 

Feed  for  in  Transit  .........................................  37 

Feeding  for  Market  .........................................  105 

the  Breeders   .......................................  54 

"        Sitting  Hens  .......................................  73 

"       Poults  ..............................................  87 

Fences    .....................................................  51 

Fleas  —  Sticktight   ......................................  L.  .,  ____  129 

Florida  Wild  Turkey  ........................................  2 

Gapes   ............................  ..................  t.;..  ......  142 

Grading  up  the  Flock  .......................................  42 

148 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Hatching  Eggs,  Care  of 65 

"      Packing  and  Shipping   38 

Methods  of   68 

with  Chicken  Hens   74 

Head  Lice   124,  126 

Honduras  or  Ocellated  Turkey 3 

Houses    56,  57 

Inbreeding    43 

Incubation    67 

Artificial   75 

Period  of  67 

Injury — Preventing  to  Hens  47 

Insect  Destroyers,  Turkeys,  as 10 

Judging  Turkeys ., 39 

Killing  and  Dressing no,  117 

Laying  Season   58 

Lice    74,  124 

On    Poults 92 

Limberneck 140 

Line  Breeding       44 

Location  of  Brood  Coop  80,  81 

Management  of  Breeders  41 

Management  of  Growing  Turkeys 98 

Markets  and  Market  Demands  103 

Market  Prices  for  Turkeys 122 

Market  Turkeys,  Size  of  102 

Marketing  Turkeys   102 

Time  of    102 

Marking  and  Pedigreeing  Turkeys   93 

Mating — General  Considerations  20 

Merriam's  or  Mexican  Turkey  2 

Mexican  or  Merriam's  Turkey   2 

Mongrels  vs.  Purebred 42 

Narragansett  Turkey   17 

Breeding  of   28 

Natural  Incubation 72 

Nest  for  Sitting  Hen  70 

Nests — Locating  Stolen 61 

Constructing    >... 64 

Number  of  Hens  to  Male 49 

149 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Ocellated  or  Honduras  Turkey ...., 3 

Opportunities  for  Turkey  Raising  7 

Origin  of  Turkeys  I 

Of  Name  Turkey 4 

Packing  Dressed  Turkeys  113 

Paddles  or  Shingles   52 

Pedigreeing  Turkeys    93 

Poults 17 

Protection  for   79 

Preparing  Turkeys  for  Show 33 

Prices    13-15 

Of  Breeders  16 

Production,  Decrease  in  6 

Profit  in  Turkeys  9 

Purchasing  Breeders   41,  48 

Purebred  vs.  Mongrels 42 

Range    , 87 

Red — Shooting  the  96 

Requirements  for  Turkey  Raising  8 

Rio  Grand  Wild  Turkey  ,..., 2 

Roosts   98 

Roup .,  139 

Selecting  Breeders  ....,.., 20,  41,  48 

Time  of  48 

Selling  Turkeys  Alive  108 

Setting  the  Hen  72 

Sex,  Distinguishing  , 96 

Sitting  Hen,  Nest  for  70 

Management  of  72 

Sheds 56,  57 

Shelter  for  Breeders 56 

Shipping  Market  Turkeys  Alive  119 

Shipping  Show  Birds  and  Breeding  Stock  36 

Coop  T 37 

Shooting  the  Red  96 

Show — Preparing  Turkeys  for  33 

Shipping  to  36 

Size 18 

of  Breeders  18,  45 

of  Eggs 77 

of  Market  Turkeys  102 

Slate  Turkey  17 

Breeding  of 31 

Sodium  Fluoride  for  Lice 126 

150 


INDEX 

PAGE 

Sorehead   r.T. ... .  139 

Sports — Example  of   30 

Standard  Varieties  of  17 

Standard  Weights  of  18 

Stick  Tight  Fleas  or  Chiggers   129 

Stolen  Nests — Locating   61 

Testing  Eggs  During  Incubation  67 

Throwing  the  Red  96 

Toe  Punching  93 

Transportation  Cars   120 

Varieties  of  Wild  Turkeys  :., 2 

Of   Domestic   17 

Popularity  of  19 

Weight  of  Market  Turkeys  102 

Weight  of  Turkey  Eggs  77 

Weights— Standard  18 

Wild  Turkey  18 

White  Holland  17 

As  Egg  Producers  20 

Breeding  of  29 

Wild  Turkey  ,...,. ...  2 

Breeding 23 

Wings — Clipping  of  52 

Woman — Turkey  Raising  as  a  Business  for  Farm 9 

Worms  14! 

Yards — Breeding    50 


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